Pseudoaneurisma de artéria poplítea secundário a osteocondroma femoral: relato de caso

Osteochondromas are the most common benign tumor of the bone. They are sometimes responsible for vascular complications involving either veins or arteries, principally around the knee. Pseudoaneurysms are considered a rare condition. The authors describe the occurrence of a pseudoaneurysm of the popliteal artery in association with a femoral osteochondroma in a 30-years-old man.

Splenic vein graft for the reconstruction of the mesenteric-portal trunk after gastroduodenopancreatectomy

Resection of the confluence of the superior mesenteric and portal veins has been performed most frequently in the treatment of adenocarcinoma of the pancreas, in view of the reported positive results, but it can also be used in cases of benign pancreatic neolpasias when they are strongly adhered to the mesenteric-portal trunk. Nevertheless, there is no study on the best type of venous grafts for reconstruction of the mesenteric-portal trunk when required. The choice of graft depends on the preference of the surgeon or the institution. This technical note critically discusses the use of the splenic vein as an option for mesenteric-portal trunk reconstruction after gastroduodenopancreatectomy.

Mondor's disease in puerperium: case report

Mondor's disease is a rare entity characterized by sclerosing thrombophlebitis classically involving one or more of the subcutaneous veins of the breast and anterior chest wall. It is usually a self-limited, benign condition, despite of rare cases of association to cancer. We present the case of a 32 year-old female, breast-feeding, who went to emergency due to left mastalgia for the past week. She was taking antibiotics and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, previously prescribed for suspicious of mastitis, for three days, with no clinical improvement. Physical examination showed an enlarged left breast, an axillary lump and a painful cord-like structure in the upper outer quadrant of the same breast. Ultrasound scan showed a markedly dilated superficial vein in the upper outer quadrant of left breast. The patient was given a ventropic therapy and was kept in anti-inflammatory, with progressive pain improvement. Ultrasound control was performed after four weeks, showing reperfusion.

Morphological aspects of buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis) umbilical cord

Buffalo is an important livestock resource, with a great participation in agricultural systems, providing milk, meat, and work power. Umbilical cord is responsible for maternal-fetal nutrients exchange during pregnancy, and its alterations can compromise the fetal development. We investigated ten pregnant uteruses collected from cross-bread buffaloes in different stages of gestation. Pregnancy and fetal age was determined by measuring the apex sacral length and development period was calculated by previously published formula. Umbilical cords were measured for length determination. Umbilical cord vascular net and anastomosis were observed by injection of Neoprene latex. Histological sections of the umbilical cord were studied after stain with HE, picrossirius, toluidine blue, orceine, and PAS reaction. Buffaloes' umbilical cord was formed by two central arteries, an allantois duct and two peripheral veins. The artery wall was composed by large quantity of collagen, elastic fibers, fibroblasts and large number of vasa vasorum. The allantois duct was located between the arteries and presented a great number of small nourishing vessels. Small nourishing vessels should be carefully considered to avoid to be mistaken to the arterials and veins vasa vasorum. Medium length of umbilical cord from buffalos was 11.8cm (minimum of 6.8cm and maximum of 17.4cm).

Systematization, description and territory of the caudal cerebral artery of the brain in broad-snouted Caiman (Caiman latirostris)

Thirty heads with the neck segment of Caiman latirostris were used. The animals were provided from a creation center called Mister Caiman, under the authorization of the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Ibama). Animals were sacrificed according to the slaughtering routine of the abattoir, and the heads were sectioned at the level of the third cervical vertebra. The arterial system was washed with cold saline solution, with drainage through jugular veins. Subsequently, the system was filled with red colored latex injection. Pieces were than fixed in 20% formaldehyde, for seven days. The brains were removed, with a spinal cord segment, the duramater removed and the arteries dissected. At the level of the hypophysis, the internal carotid artery gave off a rostral branch, and a short caudal branch, continuing, naturally, as the caudal cerebral artery. This artery projected laterodorsalwards and, as it overpassed the optic tract, gave off its I (the first) central branch. Penetrated in the cerebral transverse fissure, emitting the diencephalic artery and next its II (second) central branch. Still inside the fissure, originated occipital hemispheric branches and a pineal branch. Emerged from the cerebral transverse fissure, over the occipital pole of the cerebral hemisphere. Projected rostralwards, sagital to the cerebral longitudinal fissure, as interhemispheric artery. This artery gave off medial and convex hemispheric branches to the respective surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres, anastomosed with its contralateral homologous, forming the common ethmoidal artery. This artery entered the fissure between the olfactory peduncles, emerging ventrally and dividing into ethmoidal arteries, right and left, which progressed towards the nasal cavities, vascularizing them. The territory of the caudal cerebral artery included the most caudal area of the base of the cerebral hemisphere, its convex surface, the olfactory peduncles and bulbs, the choroid plexuses and the diencephalus with its parietal organs.

Celiotomy by plastrotomy in a yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata)

One herein reports a successful case of celiotomy by plastrotomy for removal of foreign bodies in yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata). The animal was treated at the Veterinary Hospital of the Federal University of Piaui, with appetite loss, regurgitation, constipation, lethargy, reluctance to walk and slightly reddish ocular mucous membranes. Radiographic examination was performed, confirming the presence of foreign bodies in the stomach. The tortoise underwent celiotomy by plastrotomy for the removal of the foreign bodies. The opening of the plastron was performed through the abdominal shields, with the aid of a circular mini grinding saw. One performed an incision in the midline between the two abdominal veins to access the abdominal cavity. A gastrotomy for removal of the foreign bodies (nails, toothpicks, stones, pieces of plastic, glass and crockery pieces) was performed after the location of the stomach. The surgery was successful and confirmed with radiographic evaluation in the immediate postoperative period. The celiotomy by plastrotomy for removal of foreign bodies in that animal proved to be a viable, very important and safe technique to the survival of chelonians.

Anatomy, ultrastructure and secretion of Hibiscus pernambucensis Arruda (Malvaceae) extrafloral nectary

This paper reports on the extrafloral nectary (EFN) of Hibiscus pernambucensis, a native shrub species occurring in mangrove and restinga along Brazil's coastline. EFNs occur as furrows with a protuberant border on the abaxial surface veins of the leaf blade. Each nectary consists of numerous secretory multicellular trichomes, epidermal cells in palisade-like arrangements and non-vascularized parenchyma tissue. Nectar secretion is prolonged, since secretion starts in very young leaves and remains up to completely expanded leaves. Reduced sugars, lipids, and proteins were histochemically detected in all the nectary cells; phenolic substances were detected in the vacuoles of the epidermal palisade cells and in some secretory trichome cells. The secretory cells that constitute the body of trichomes have large nuclei, dense cytoplasm with numerous mitochondria, dictyosomes, scattered lipid droplets and plastids with different inclusions: protein, lipid droplets or starch grains; vacuoles with different sizes have membranous material, phenolic and lipophilic substances. The palisade cells show thick periclinal walls, reduced cytoplasm with voluminous lipid drops and developed vacuoles. The nectary parenchyma cells contain abundant plasmodesmata and cytoplasm with scattered lipid droplets, mitochondria, plastids with starch grains and endoplasmic reticulum. Mucilage idioblasts are common in the inner nectary parenchyma. Protoderm and ground meristem participate in the formation of EFN. Our data indicate that all nectary regions are involved in nectar production and secretion, constituting a functional unit. Longevity of the extrafloral nectaries is likely associated with the presence of mucilage idioblasts, which increases the capacity of the nectary parenchyma to store water.

Partial recovery of erythrocyte glycogen in diabetic rats treated with phenobarbital

Erythrocytes may play a role in glucose homeostasis during the postprandial period. Erythrocytes from diabetic patients are defective in glucose transport and metabolism, functions that may affect glycogen storage. Phenobarbital, a hepatic enzyme inducer, has been used in the treatment of patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM), increasing the insulin-mediated glucose disposal. We studied the effects of phenobarbital treatment in vivo on glycemia and erythrocyte glycogen content in control and alloxan-diabetic rats during the postprandial period. In control rats (blood glucose, 73 to 111 mg/dl in femoral and suprahepatic veins) the erythrocyte glycogen content was 45.4 ± 1.1 and 39.1 ± 0.8 µg/g Hb (mean ± SEM, N = 4-6) in the femoral artery and vein, respectively, and 37.9 ± 1.1 in the portal vein and 47.5 ± 0.9 in the suprahepatic vein. Diabetic rats (blood glucose, 300-350 mg/dl) presented low (P<0.05) erythrocyte glycogen content, i.e., 9.6 ± 0.1 and 7.1 ± 0.7 µg/g Hb in the femoral artery and vein, respectively, and 10.0 ± 0.7 and 10.7 ± 0.5 in the portal and suprahepatic veins, respectively. After 10 days of treatment, phenobarbital (0.5 mg/ml in the drinking water) did not change blood glucose or erythrocyte glycogen content in control rats. In diabetic rats, however, it lowered (P<0.05) blood glucose in the femoral artery (from 305 ± 18 to 204 ± 45 mg/dl) and femoral vein (from 300 ± 11 to 174 ± 48 mg/dl) and suprahepatic vein (from 350 ± 10 to 174 ± 42 mg/dl), but the reduction was not sufficient for complete recovery. Phenobarbital also stimulated the glycogen synthesis, leading to a partial recovery of glycogen stores in erythrocytes. In treated rats, erythrocyte glycogen content increased to 20.7 ± 3.8 µg/g Hb in the femoral artery and 30.9 ± 0.9 µg/g Hb in the suprahepatic vein (P<0.05). These data indicate that phenobarbital activated some of the insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism steps which were depressed in diabetic erythrocytes, supporting the view that erythrocytes participate in glucose homeostasis

Vammaisuus hyvinvointivaltiossa. Invalideiksi, vajaamielisiksi tai kehitysvammaisiksi määriteltyjen kansalaisasema suomalaisessa vammaispolitiikassa 1940-luvun taitteesta vuoteen 1987

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan vammaisiksi määriteltyjen ihmisten kansalaisasemaa suomalaisessa toisen maailmansodan jälkeisessä vammaispoliittisessa keskustelussa. Analyysissa huomioidaan suomalaisen vammaishuollon molemmista päälinjoista, eli invalidihuollosta sekä vajaamielis- ja kehitysvammahuollosta, käydyt keskustelut. Tutkimuksen aikarajauksena toimii niin kutsuttu invalihuollon kausi, joka ulottui lakisääteisen vammaishuollon tarpeesta 1940-luvun taitteessa virinneestä keskustelusta vuoteen 1987, jolloin säädettiin periaatteiltaan edeltävään lainsäädäntöön verrattuna uudenlainen laki vammaisuuden perusteella järjestettävistä palveluista ja tukitoimista. Vammaisuuden käsitettä lähestytään tutkimuksessa yhtenä modernin sosiaalipoliittisen lainsäädännön kategorioista, jotka ovat vapauttaneet kansalaisen velvollisuudesta itsensä ja perheensä elättämiseen ja oikeuttaneet hänet toimeentulossaan sosiaaliturvaan. Tutkimuksessa pyritään hahmottamaan millaiseksi tutkimuksen kohteena olevien vammaisten ryhmien kansalaisasema tutkimusajankohtana ymmärrettiin. Tarkastelussa keskitytään kansalaisuuden käsitteen niin kutsuttuun aineellisoikeudelliseen sisältöön analysoimalla tutkimuksen kohteena olevissa keskusteluissa esiintyneitä kansalaisuuden ideaaleja ja käsityksiä kansalaisen ja valtion suhteesta. Tutkimusaihetta lähestytään etsimällä vastausta kysymyksiin 1) Mihin yhteiskunnallisiin ongelmiin invalidihuollosta ja vajaamielis- tai 312 kehitysvammahuollosta käydyissä asiantuntijakeskusteluissa haettiin ratkaisuja? 2) Millaisia tavoitteita huollolle asetettiin? 3) Millaiseksi hahmotettiin huollon kohderyhmien asema ja tehtävät yhteiskunnassa? Analyysissa keskitytään huollosta käydyn asiantuntijakeskustelun tarkasteluun. Tutkimuksen keskeisin lähdeaineisto muodostuu tutkimusajankohdan vammaishuoltoa käsittelevästä lainsäädännöstä, sen valmistelun materiaaleista sekä vammaisjärjestöjen ja muiden alan asiantuntijoiden vammaishuollosta julkisuudessa käymästä keskustelusta. Tutkimuksessa esitetään, että suomalaisen vammaispolitiikan ja vammaisten kansalaisaseman kehityksessä on tutkimusajankohtana erotettavissa kolme vaihetta: 1) 1940–1950-lukujen yhteiskunnan rationalisointia ja sosiaalisten ongelmien vähentämistä painottaneella ennaltaehkäisevän huoltopolitiikan kaudella vammaiset ihmiset hahmotettiin yhteiskunnan reunamilla tai ulkopuolella olevaksi erityisryhmäksi, joka tuli pyrkiä huollon toimenpiteillä integroimaan omalle paikalleen yhteiskunnan kokonaisuuteen. 2) 1960-luvun kuntoutusideaalin laajenemisen kaudella vammaishuollon julkilausutuksi tavoitteeksi omaksuttiin yksilön edun ajaminen. 3) 1970–1980-lukujen normalisaation periaatetta painottaneessa vammaispolitiikassa tavoitteeksi otettiin vammaisille tarkoitettujen erityisjärjestelmien purkaminen sekä vammaisten tasa-arvoisen kansalaisaseman turvaaminen heidän osallistumismahdollisuuksiaan parantavilla tukitoimenpiteillä.

Genesis and Evolution of Brittle Structures In Southwestern Finland and Western South Africa. Insights into Fault Reactivation, Fluid Flow and Structural Maturity in Precambrian Cratons

The bedrock of old crystalline cratons is characteristically saturated with brittle structures formed during successive superimposed episodes of deformation and under varying stress regimes. As a result, the crust effectively deforms through the reactivation of pre-existing structures rather than by through the activation, or generation, of new ones, and is said to be in a state of 'structural maturity'. By combining data from Olkiluoto Island, southwestern Finland, which has been investigated as the potential site of a deep geological repository for high-level nuclear waste, with observations from southern Sweden, it can be concluded that the southern part of the Svecofennian shield had already attained structural maturity during the Mesoproterozoic era. This indicates that the phase of activation of the crust, i.e. the time interval during which new fractures were generated, was brief in comparison to the subsequent reactivation phase. Structural maturity of the bedrock was also attained relatively rapidly in Namaqualand, western South Africa, after the formation of first brittle structures during Neoproterozoic time. Subsequent brittle deformation in Namaqualand was controlled by the reactivation of pre-existing strike-slip faults.In such settings, seismic events are likely to occur through reactivation of pre-existing zones that are favourably oriented with respect to prevailing stresses. In Namaqualand, this is shown for present day seismicity by slip tendency analysis, and at Olkiluoto, for a Neoproterozoic earthquake reactivating a Mesoproterozoic fault. By combining detailed field observations with the results of paleostress inversions and relative and absolute time constraints, seven distinctm superimposed paleostress regimes have been recognized in the Olkiluoto region. From oldest to youngest these are: (1) NW-SE to NNW-SSE transpression, which prevailed soon after 1.75 Ga, when the crust had sufficiently cooled down to allow brittle deformation to occur. During this phase conjugate NNW-SSE and NE-SW striking strike-slip faults were active simultaneous with reactivation of SE-dipping low-angle shear zones and foliation planes. This was followed by (2) N-S to NE-SW transpression, which caused partial reactivation of structures formed in the first event; (3) NW-SE extension during the Gothian orogeny and at the time of rapakivi magmatism and intrusion of diabase dikes; (4) NE-SW transtension that occurred between 1.60 and 1.30 Ga and which also formed the NW-SE-trending Satakunta graben located some 20 km north of Olkiluoto. Greisen-type veins also formed during this phase. (5) NE-SW compression that postdates both the formation of the 1.56 Ga rapakivi granites and 1.27 Ga olivine diabases of the region; (6) E-W transpression during the early stages of the Mesoproterozoic Sveconorwegian orogeny and which also predated (7) almost coaxial E-W extension attributed to the collapse of the Sveconorwegian orogeny. The kinematic analysis of fracture systems in crystalline bedrock also provides a robust framework for evaluating fluid-rock interaction in the brittle regime; this is essential in assessment of bedrock integrity for numerous geo-engineering applications, including groundwater management, transient or permanent CO2 storage and site investigations for permanent waste disposal. Investigations at Olkiluoto revealed that fluid flow along fractures is coupled with low normal tractions due to in-situ stresses and thus deviates from the generally accepted critically stressed fracture concept, where fluid flow is concentrated on fractures on the verge of failure. The difference is linked to the shallow conditions of Olkiluoto - due to the low differential stresses inherent at shallow depths, fracture activation and fluid flow is controlled by dilation due to low normal tractions. At deeper settings, however, fluid flow is controlled by fracture criticality caused by large differential stress, which drives shear deformation instead of dilation.

Nitric oxide synthesis and biological functions of nitric oxide released from ruthenium compounds

During three decades, an enormous number of studies have demonstrated the critical role of nitric oxide (NO) as a second messenger engaged in the activation of many systems including vascular smooth muscle relaxation. The underlying cellular mechanisms involved in vasodilatation are essentially due to soluble guanylyl-cyclase (sGC) modulation in the cytoplasm of vascular smooth cells. sGC activation culminates in cyclic GMP (cGMP) production, which in turn leads to protein kinase G (PKG) activation. NO binds to the sGC heme moiety, thereby activating this enzyme. Activation of the NO-sGC-cGMP-PKG pathway entails Ca2+ signaling reduction and vasodilatation. Endothelium dysfunction leads to decreased production or bioavailability of endogenous NO that could contribute to vascular diseases. Nitrosyl ruthenium complexes have been studied as a new class of NO donors with potential therapeutic use in order to supply the NO deficiency. In this context, this article shall provide a brief review of the effects exerted by the NO that is enzymatically produced via endothelial NO-synthase (eNOS) activation and by the NO released from NO donor compounds in the vascular smooth muscle cells on both conduit and resistance arteries, as well as veins. In addition, the involvement of the nitrite molecule as an endogenous NO reservoir engaged in vasodilatation will be described.

Lipoprotein glomerulopathy: a case report of a rare disease in a brazilian child

Lipoprotein glomerulopathy (LPG) is a rare autosomal recessive glomerulopathy associated with the deposition of lipoprotein thrombi in the capillary lumina due to apoE gene mutations. Abnormal plasma lipoprotein profile and marked increase in serum apoliprotein E (apoE) are characteristic clinical data. The compromised patients can present nephrotic syndrome, hematuria, and progressive renal failure. Herein, the authors present the first described case of LPG in a Brazilian male patient, 11 years, who presented with a steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. Renal function was normal. Kidney biopsy showed markedly enlarged glomerulus, with dilated capillary loops and weak eosinophilic lipoprotein thrombi in the capillary lumina. Interstitium, tubules, arteries, and veins showed normal histologic aspect. Genotypic study for the apoE gene showed the presence of the alleles E3 and E4. The diagnosis of LPG was then performed. The patient received lipid-lowering treatment. After 2 years of follow-up, renal function is gradually decreasing, with persisting heavy proteinuria, despite a marked decrease in serum cholesterol and triglycerides levels.

Development of hypogene and supergene alteration and copper mineralization patterns, Sar Cheshmeh porphyry copper deposits, Iran /

The formation of the Sar Cheshmeh porphyry Cu-Mo deposit is related to the culmination of calc-alkaline igneous activity in the Kerman region. The deposit comprises a suite of Late Cenozoic intrusive sub-volcanic and extrusive rocks emplaced into a folded series of Eocene andesitic lavas and pyroclastic sediments. The earliest stage of magmatism was emplacement of a large granodiorite stock about 29 m.y.b.p. This was followed by intrusion of two separate porphyritic bodies at 15 (Sar Cheshrneh porphyry) and 12 m.y.b.p. (Late porphyry) and a series of sub-volcanic dikes between 12 and 9 m.y.b.p. Magmatic activity terminated with multi-phase extrusion of a Pelean dacitic dome complex between 10 and 2.8 m.y.b.p. The country rocks and the earlier porphyritic intrusions are pervasively altered to biotite-rich potassium silicate (metasomatic and hydrothermal) sericite-clay, phyllic and chlorite-clay, argillic assemblages. These grade outwards to an extensive propylitic zone. Within the ore body, the later intra-. and post-mineral dikes only reach the propylitic grade. At least three different sets of quartz veins are present, including a sericite-chlorite-quartz set which locally retrogrades pervasive secondary biotite to sericite. In the hypogene zone, metasomatic and hydrothermal alteration is related to all stages of magmatism but copper mineralization and veining are restricted to a period of 15 to 9 m.y.b.p.related to the early intrusive phases. The copper mineralization and silicate alteration do not fit a simple annular ring model but have been greatly modified by, 1. The existence of an ititial, outer ring, of metasomatic alteration overprinted by an inner.ring of hydrothermal alteration and, 2. later extensive dilating effects of intra- and post-mineral dikes. The hydrothermal clay mineral assemblage in the hypogene zone is illite-chlorite-kaolinite-smectite (beidellite). Preliminary studies indicate that the amount of each of these clays varies vertically and that hydrothermal zonation of clay minerals is possible. However, these minerals alter to illite-kaolinite assemblages in the supergene sulfide zone and to more kaolinite-rich assemblages in the supergene leached zone. Hydrothermal biotite breaks down readily in the supergene zone and is not well preserved in surface outcrops. The distribution of copper minerals in the supergene sulfide enrichment zone is only partly related to rock type being more dependent on topography and the availability of fractures.

Geology of the Sand Creek porphyry molybdenum prospect /

The Sand Creek Prospect is located within the eastern exposed margin of the Coast Plutonic Complex. The occurrence is a plug and dyke porphyry molybdenum deposit. The rock types, listed in decreasing age: 1) metamorphlc schists and gneisses; 2) diorite suite rocks - diorite, quartz diorite, tonalite; 3) rocks of andesitic composition; 4) granodiorites, coarse porphyritic granodiorite, quartzfeldspar porphyry, feldspar porphyry; and 5) lamprophyre. Hydrothermal alteration is known to have resulted from emplacement of the hornblende-feldspar porphyry through to the quartz-feldspar porphyry. Molybdenum mineralization is chiefly associated with the quartz-feldspar porphyry. Ore mineralogy is dominated by pyrite with subordinate molybdenite, chalcopyrite, covelline, sphalerite, galena, scheelite, cassiterite and wolframite. Molybdenite exhibits a textural gradation outward from the quartz-feldspar porphyry. That is, disseminated rosettes and rosettes in quartz veins to fine-grained molybdenite in quartz veins and potassic altered fractures to fine-grained molybdenite paint or 6mears in the peripheral zones. The quartz-feldspar porphyry dykes were emplaced in an inhomogeneous stress field. The trend of dykes, faults and shear zones is 0^1° to 063° and dips between 58° NW and 86* SE. Joint Pole distribution reflects this fault orientation. These late deformatior maxima are probably superimposed upon annuli representing diapiric emplacement of the plutons. A model of emplacement involving two magmatic pulses is given in the following sequence: Diorite pulse (i) dioritequartz diorite, (ii) tonalites; granodiorite pulse (iii) hornblende-fildspar microporphyry, hornblende/biotite porphyry, (iv) coarse grained granodiorite, (v) quartz-feldspar porphyry, (vi) feldspar porphyry, and (vii) lamprophyre. The combination of plutonic and coarse porphyritic textures, extensive propylitic overprinting of potassic alteration assemblages suggests that the. prospect represents the lower reaches of a porphyry system.

L'itinéraire philosophique d'Hilary Putnam, des mathématiques à l'éthique

Dans cette thèse, je propose une lecture renouvelée de l’itinéraire philosophique d’Hilary Putnam concernant la problématique du réalisme. Mon propos consiste essentiellement à défendre l’idée selon laquelle il y aurait beaucoup plus de continuité, voir une certaine permanence, dans la manière dont Putnam a envisagé la question du réalisme tout au long de sa carrière. Pour arriver à une telle interprétation de son oeuvre, j’ai essentiellement suivi deux filons. D’abord, dans un ouvrage du début des années 2000, Ethics without Ontology (2004), Putnam établit un parallèle entre sa conception de l’objectivité en philosophie des mathématiques et en éthique. Le deuxième filon vient d’une remarque qu’il fait, dans l’introduction du premier volume de ses Philosophical Papers (1975), affirmant que la forme de réalisme qu’il présupposait dans ses travaux des années 1960-1970 était la même que celle qu’il défendait en philosophie des mathématiques et qu’il souhaitait défendre ultérieurement en éthique. En suivant le premier filon, il est possible de mieux cerner la conception générale que se fait Putnam de l’objectivité, mais pour comprendre en quel sens une telle conception de l’objectivité n’est pas propre aux mathématiques, mais constitue en réalité une conception générale de l’objectivité, il faut suivre le second filon, selon lequel Putnam aurait endossé, durant les années 1960-1970, le même type de réalisme en philosophie des sciences et en éthique qu’en philosophie des mathématiques. Suivant cette voie, on se rend compte qu’il existe une similarité structurelle très forte entre le premier réalisme de Putnam et son réalisme interne. Après avoir établi la parenté entre le premier et le second réalisme de Putnam, je montre, en m’inspirant de commentaires du philosophe ainsi qu’en comparant le discours du réalisme interne au discours de son réalisme actuel (le réalisme naturel du commun des mortels), que, contrairement à l’interprétation répandue, il existe une grande unité au sein de sa conception du réalisme depuis les années 1960 à nos jours. Je termine la thèse en montrant comment mon interprétation renouvelée de l’itinéraire philosophique de Putnam permet de jeter un certain éclairage sur la forme de réalisme que Putnam souhaite défendre en éthique.