Notch signaling in T- and B-cell development.

The Notch family of evolutionarily conserved proteins regulates a broad spectrum of cell-fate decisions and differentiation processes during fetal and post-natal development. The best characterized role of Notch signaling during mammalian hematopoiesis and lymphopoiesis is the essential function of the Notch1 receptor in T-cell lineage commitment. More recent studies have addressed the roles of other Notch receptors and ligands, as well as their downstream targets, revealing additional novel functions of Notch signaling in intra-thymic T-cell development, B-cell development and peripheral T-cell function.

Role of intracellular signaling pathways activated in fibroblasts in response to lipoproteins

Summary The best described physiological function of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) is to transport cholesterol to target tissues. LDL deliver their cholesterol cargo to cells following their interaction with the LDL receptor. LDL, when their vascular concentrations increase, have also been implicated in pathologies such as atherosclerosis. Among the cell types that are found in blood vessels, endothelial and smooth muscle cells have dominated cellular research on atherosclerotic mechanisms and LDL activation of signaling pathways, while very little is known about adventitial fibroblast activation caused by elevated lipoprotein levels. Since fibroblasts participate in wound repair and since it has recently been recognized that fibroblasts may play pivotal roles in vascular remodeling and repair of injury, we assessed whether lipoproteins affect fibroblast function. We have found that LDL specifically mediate the activation of a class of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs): the p38 MAPKs. The activation of this pathway in turn modulates cell shape by promoting lamellipodia formation and extensive cell spreading. This is of particular interest because it provides a mechanism by which LDL can promote wound healing or vessel wall remodeling as observed during the development of atherosclerosis. In order to understand the molecular mechanisms by which LDL induce p38 activation we searched for the component in the LDL particle responsible for the induction of this pathway. We found that cholesterol is the major component of lipoprotein particles that mediates their ability to stimulate the p38 MAPK pathway. Furthermore, we investigated the cellular mechanisms underlying the ability of LDL to induce cell shape changes and whether this could participate in wound repair. Our recent data demonstrates that the capacity of LDL to induce fibroblast spreading relies on their ability to stimulate IL-8 secretion, which in turn leads to accelerated wound healing. LDL-induced IL-8 production and subsequent wound closure are impaired upon inhibition of the p38 MAPK pathway indicating that the LDL-induced spreading and accelerated wound sealing rely on the ability of LDL to stimulate IL-8 secretion in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. Therefore, regulation of fibroblast shape and migration by lipoproteins may be relevant to atherosclerosis that is characterized by increased LDL-cholesterol levels, IL-8 production and extensive remodeling of the vessel wall. Résumé: La fonction physiologique des lipoprotéines à faible densité (LDL) la mieux décrite est celle du transport du cholestérol aux tissus cibles. Les LDL livrent leur cargaison de cholestérol aux cellules après leur interaction avec le récepteur au LDL. Une concentration vasculaire des LDL augmenté est également impliquée dans le développement de l'athérosclérose. Parmi les types de cellule présents dans les vaisseaux sanguins, les cellules endothéliales et les cellules du muscle lisse ont dominé la recherche cellulaire sur les mécanismes athérosclérotiques et sur l'activation par les LDL des voies de signalisation intracellulaire. A l'inverse peu de choses sont connues sur l'activation des fibroblastes de l'adventice par les lipoprotéines. Puisqu'il a été récemment reconnu que les fibroblastes peuvent jouer un rôle central dans la remodélisation vasculaire et la réparation tissulaire, nous avons étudié si les lipoprotéines affectent la fonction des fibroblastes. Nous avons constaté que les LDL activent spécifiquement une classe de protéines kinases: les p38 MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinases). L'activation de cette voie module à son tour la forme de la cellule en favorisant la formation de lamellipodes et l'agrandissement des cellules. Cela a un intérêt particulier car il fournit un mécanisme par lequel les LDL peuvent promouvoir la cicatrisation ou la remodélisation des parois vasculaires comme observés lors du développement de l'athérosclérose. Pour comprendre les mécanismes moléculaires par lesquels les LDL provoquent l'activation des p38 MAPK, nous avons cherché à identifier les composants dans la particule de LDL responsables de l'induction de cette voie. Nous avons constaté que le cholestérol est l'élément principal des particules de lipoprotéine qui contrôle leur capacité à stimuler la voie des p38 MAPK. En outre, nous avons examiné les mécanismes cellulaires responsables de la capacité des LDL à induire des changements dans la forme des cellules. Nos données récentes démontrent que la capacité des LDL à induire l'agrandissement des cellules, ainsi que leur aptitude à favoriser la cicatrisation, reposant sur leur capacité à stimuler la sécrétiond'IL-8. La production d'IL-8 induite par les LDL est bloquée par l'inhibition de la voie p38 MAPK, ce qui indique que l'étalement des cellules induit par les LDL ainsi que l'accélération de la cicatrisation sont liés à la capacité des LDL à stimuler la sécrétion d'IL8 via l'activation des p38 MAPK. La régulation de la forme et de la migration des fibroblastes par les lipoprotéines peuvent donc participer au développement de l'athérosclérose qui est caractérisée par l'augmentation des niveaux de production de LDL-cholestérol et d'IL-8 ainsi que par une remodélisation augmentée de la paroi du vaisseau.

AFT3 as a new therapeutic target for skin field cancerization in antagonism with compromised Notch/CSL signaling

Les interactions épithélio-mésenchymateuses jouent un rôle important dans le contrôle du développement normal de la peau, son homéostasie et sa tumorigenèse. Les fibroblastes dermiques (DFs) représentent la catégorie cellulaire la plus abondante dans le stroma et leur rôle est de plus en plus considéré. En ce qui concerne particulièrement la tumorigenèse, des facteurs diffusibles produits par les fibroblastes entourant les tumeurs épithéliales, appelés 'fibroblastes associés au cancer (CAF)', interagissent au niveau de l'inflammation impliquée directement ou indirectement dans la signalisation paracrine, entre le stroma et les cellules épiéliales cancéreuses. Le risque de cancer de la peau augmente de façon exponentielle avec l'âge. Comme un lien probable entre les deux, la sénescence des fibroblastes résulte de la production du sécrétome favorisant la sénescence (SMS), un groupe de facteurs diffusibles induisant une stimulation paracrine de la croissance, l'inflammation et le remodelage de la matrice. De façon fort intéressante, l'induction de ces gènes est aussi une caractéristique des CAFs. Cependant, le lien entre les deux événements cellulaires sénescence et activation des CAFs reste en grande partie inexploré. L'ATF3 (Activating Transcription Factor 3) est un facteur de transcription induit en réponse au stress, dont les fonctions sont hautement spécifiques du type cellulaire. Bien qu'il ait été découvert dans notre laboratoire en tant que promoteur de tumeurs dans les kératinocytes, ses fonctions biologique et biochimique dans le derme n'ont pas encore été étudiées. Récemment, nous avons constaté que, chez la souris, l'abrogation de la voie de signalisation de Notch/CSL dans les DFs, induisait la formation de tumeurs kératinocytaires multifocales. Ces dernières proviennent de la cancérisation en domaine, un phénomène associé à une atrophie du stroma, des altérations de la matrice et de l'inflammation. D'autres études ont montré que CSL agissait comme un régulateur négatif de gènes impliqués dans sénescence des DFs et dans l'activation des CAFs. Ici, nous montrons que la suppression ou l'atténuation de l'expression de ATF3 dans les DFs induit la sénescence et l'expression des gènes liés aux CAFs, de façon similaire à celle déclenchée par la perte de CSL, tandis que la surexpression de ATF3 supprime ces changements. Nous émettons l'hypothèse que ATF3 joue un rôle suppresseur dans l'activation des CAFs et dans la progression des tumeurs kératinocytaires, en surmontant les conséquences de l'abrogation de la voie de signalisation Notch/CSL. En concordance avec cette hypothèse, nous avons constaté que la perte de ATF3 dans les DFs favorisait la tumorigénicité des kératinocytes via le contrôle négatif de cytokines, des enzymes de la matrice de remodelage et de protéines associées au cancer, peut-être par liaison directe des effecteurs de la voie Notch/CSL : IL6 et les gènes Hes. Enfin, dans les échantillons cliniques humains, le stroma sous-jacent aux lésions précancéreuses de kératoses actiniques montre une diminution significative de l'expression de ATF3 par rapport au stroma jouxtant la peau normale. La restauration de l'expression de ATF3 pourrait être utilisée comme un outil thérapeutique en recherche translationnelle pour prévenir ou réprimer le processus de cancérisation en domaine. - Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions play an important role in control of normal skin development, homeostasis and tumorigenesis. The role of dermal fibroblasts (DFs) as the most abundant cell type in stroma is increasingly appreciated. Especially during tumorigenesis, fibroblasts surrounding epithelial tumors, called Cancer Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs), produce diffusible factors (growth factors, inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and enzymes, and matrix metalloproteinases) that mediate inflammation either directly or indirectly through paracrine signaling between stroma and epithelial cancer cells. The risk of skin cancer increases exponentially with age. As a likely link between the two, senescence of fibroblasts results in production of the senescence-messaging-secretome (SMS), a panel of diffusible factors inducing paracrine growth stimulation, inflammation, and matrix remodeling. Interestingly, induction of these genes is also a characteristic of Cancer Associated Fibroblasts (CAFs). However, the link between the two cellular events, senescence and CAF activation is largely unexplored. ATF3 is a key stress response transcription factor with highly cell type specific functions, which has been discovered as a tumor promoter in keratinocytes in our lab. However, the biological and biochemical function of ATF3 in the dermal compartment of the skin has not been studied yet. Recently, we found that compromised Notch/CSL signaling in dermal fibroblasts (DFs) in mice is a primary cause of multifocal keratinocyte tumors called field cancerization associated with stromal atrophy, matrix alterations and inflammation. Further studies showed that CSL functions as a negative regulator of genes involved in DFs senescence and CAF activation. Here, we show that deletion or silencing of the ATF3 gene in DFs activates senescence and CAF-related gene expression similar to that triggered by loss of CSL, while increased ATF3 suppresses these changes. We hypothesize that ATF3 plays a suppressing role in CAF activation and keratinocyte tumor progression, overcoming the consequences of compromised Notch/CSL signaling. In support of this hypothesis, we found that loss of ATF3 in DFs promotes tumorigenic behavior of keratinocytes via negative control of cytokines, matrix-remodeling enzymes and cancer-associated proteins, possibly through direct binding to Notch/CSL targets, IL6 and Hes genes. On the other hand, in human clinical samples, stromal fields underlying premalignant actinic keratosis lesions showed significantly decreased ATF3 expression relative to stroma of flanking normal skin. Restoration of ATF3, which is lost in cancer development, may be used as a therapeutic tool for translational research to prevent or suppress the field cancerization process.

Multimeric complexes of the PML-retinoic acid receptor alpha fusion protein in acute promyelocytic leukemia cells and interference with retinoid and peroxisome-proliferator signaling pathways.

The t(15;17) chromosomal translocation, specific for acute promyelocytic leukemia (APL), fuses the PML gene to the retinoic acid receptor alpha (RAR alpha) gene, resulting in expression of a PML-RAR alpha hybrid protein. In this report, we analyzed the nature of PML-RAR alpha-containing complexes in nuclear protein extracts of t(15;17)-positive cells. We show that endogenous PML-RAR alpha can bind to DNA as a homodimer, in contrast to RAR alpha that requires the retinoid X receptor (RXR) dimerization partner. In addition, these cells contain oligomeric complexes of PML-RAR alpha and endogenous RXR. Treatment with retinoic acid results in a decrease of PML-RAR alpha protein levels and, as a consequence, of DNA binding by the different complexes. Using responsive elements from various hormone signaling pathways, we show that PML-RAR alpha homodimers have altered DNA-binding characteristics when compared to RAR alpha-RXR alpha heterodimers. In transfected Drosophila SL-3 cells that are devoid of endogenous retinoid receptors PML-RAR alpha inhibits transactivation by RAR alpha-RXR alpha heterodimers in a dominant fashion. In addition, we show that both normal retinoid receptors and the PML-RAR alpha hybrid bind and activate the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor responsive element from the Acyl-CoA oxidase gene, indicating that retinoids and peroxisome proliferator receptors may share common target genes. These properties of PML-RAR alpha may contribute to the transformed phenotype of APL cells.

Solovian and New Growth Theory from the Perspective of Allyn Young on Macroeconomic Increasing Returns

This paper evaluates, from an Allyn Youngian perspective, the neoclassical Solow model of growth and the associated empirical estimates of the sources of growth based on it. It attempts to clarify Young’s particular concept of generalised or macroeconomic “increasing returns” to show the limitations of a model of growth based on an assumption that the aggregate production function is characterised by constant returns to scale but “augmented” by exogenous technical progress. Young’s concept of endogenous, self-sustaining growth is also shown to differ in important respects (including in its policy implications) from modern endogenous growth theory.

A Soft Edge Target Zone Model: Theory And Application To Hong Kong

Hong Kong’s currency is pegged to the US dollar in a currency board arrangement. In autumn 2003, the Hong Kong dollar appreciated from close to 7.80 per US dollar to 7.70, as investors feared that the currency board would be abandoned. In the wake of this appreciation, the monetary authorities revamped the one-sided currency board mechanism into a symmetric two-sided system with a narrow exchange rate band. This paper reviews the characteristics of the new currency board arrangement and embeds a theoretical soft edge target zone model typifying many intermediate regimes, to explain the notable achievement of speculative peace and credibility since May 2005.

Lack of evidence of the interaction of the Aß peptide with the Wnt signaling cascade in Drosophila models of Alzheimer's disease.

Background Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading form of dementia worldwide. The Aß-peptide is believed to be the major pathogenic compound of the disease. Since several years it is hypothesized that Aß impacts the Wnt signaling cascade and therefore activation of this signaling pathway is proposed to rescue the neurotoxic effect of Aß. Findings Expression of the human Aß42 in the Drosophila nervous system leads to a drastically shortened life span. We found that the action of Aß42 specifically in the glutamatergic motoneurons is responsible for the reduced survival. However, we find that the morphology of the glutamatergic larval neuromuscular junctions, which are widely used as the model for mammalian central nervous system synapses, is not affected by Aß42 expression. We furthermore demonstrate that genetic activation of the Wnt signal transduction pathway in the nervous system is not able to rescue the shortened life span or a rough eye phenotype in Drosophila. Conclusions Our data confirm that the life span is a useful readout of Aß42 induced neurotoxicity in Drosophila; the neuromuscular junction seems however not to be an appropriate model to study AD in flies. Additionally, our results challenge the hypothesis that Wnt signaling might be implicated in Aß42 toxicity and might serve as a drug target against AD.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling, but not TWEAK (TNF-like weak inducer of apoptosis)-triggered cIAP1 (cellular inhibitor of apoptosis protein 1) degradation, requires cIAP1 RING dimerization and E2 binding.

Cellular inhibitor of apoptosis (cIAP) proteins, cIAP1 and cIAP2, are important regulators of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) superfamily (SF) signaling and are amplified in a number of tumor types. They are targeted by IAP antagonist compounds that are undergoing clinical trials. IAP antagonist compounds trigger cIAP autoubiquitylation and degradation. The TNFSF member TWEAK induces lysosomal degradation of TRAF2 and cIAPs, leading to elevated NIK levels and activation of non-canonical NF-kappaB. To investigate the role of the ubiquitin ligase RING domain of cIAP1 in these pathways, we used cIAP-deleted cells reconstituted with cIAP1 point mutants designed to interfere with the ability of the RING to dimerize or to interact with E2 enzymes. We show that RING dimerization and E2 binding are required for IAP antagonists to induce cIAP1 degradation and protect cells from TNF-induced cell death. The RING functions of cIAP1 are required for full TNF-induced activation of NF-kappaB, however, delayed activation of NF-kappaB still occurs in cIAP1 and -2 double knock-out cells. The RING functions of cIAP1 are also required to prevent constitutive activation of non-canonical NF-kappaB by targeting NIK for proteasomal degradation. However, in cIAP double knock-out cells TWEAK was still able to increase NIK levels demonstrating that NIK can be regulated by cIAP-independent pathways. Finally we show that, unlike IAP antagonists, TWEAK was able to induce degradation of cIAP1 RING mutants. These results emphasize the critical importance of the RING of cIAP1 in many signaling scenarios, but also demonstrate that in some pathways RING functions are not required.

A Salience Theory of Choice Errors

We study a psychologically based foundation for choice errors. The decision maker applies a preference ranking after forming a 'consideration set' prior to choosing an alternative. Membership of the consideration set is determined both by the alternative specific salience and by the rationality of the agent (his general propensity to consider all alternatives). The model turns out to include a logit formulation as a special case. In general, it has a rich set of implications both for exogenous parameters and for a situation in which alternatives can a¤ect their own salience (salience games). Such implications are relevant to assess the link between 'revealed' preferences and 'true' preferences: for example, less rational agents may paradoxically express their preference through choice more truthfully than more rational agents.

Off-the-Record Target Zones: Theory with an Application to Hong Kongs Currency Board

This paper provides a modelling framework for evaluating the exchange rate dynamics of a target zone regime with undisclosed bands. We generalize the literature to allow for asymmetric one-sided regimes. Market participants' beliefs concerning an undisclosed band change as they learn more about central bank intervention policy. We apply the model to Hong Kong's one-sided currency board mechanism. In autumn 2003, the Hong Kong dollar appreciated from close to 7.80 per US dollar to 7.70, as investors feared that the currency board would be abandoned. In the wake of this appreciation, the monetary authorities finally revamped the regime as a symmetric two-sided system with a narrow exchange rate band.

Corruption and the Military in Politics: Theory and Evidence from around the World

Recent theoretical developments and case study evidence suggests a relationship between the military in politics and corruption. This study contributes to this literature by analyzing theoretically and empirically the role of the military in politics and corruption for the first time. By drawing on a cross sectional and panel data set covering a large number of countries, over the period 1984-2007, and using a variety of econometric methods substantial empirical support is found for a positive relationship between the military in politics and corruption. In sum, our results reveal that a one standard deviation increase in the military in politics leads to a 0.22 unit increase in corruption index. This relationship is shown to be robust to a variety of specification changes, different econometric techniques, different sample sizes, alternative corruption indices and the exclusion of outliers. This study suggests that the explanatory power of the military in politics is at least as important as the conventionally accepted causes of corruption, such as economic development.

Optimism and commitment: An elementary theory of bargaining and war

We propose an elementary theory of wars fought by fully rational contenders. Two parties play a Markov game that combines stages of bargaining with stages where one side has the ability to impose surrender on the other. Under uncertainty and incomplete information, in the unique equilibrium of the game, long confrontations occur: war arises when reality disappoints initial (rational) optimism, and it persist longer when both agents are optimists but reality proves both wrong. Bargaining proposals that are rejected initially might eventually be accepted after several periods of confrontation. We provide an explicit computation of the equilibrium, evaluating the probability of war, and its expected losses as a function of i) the costs of confrontation, ii) the asymmetry of the split imposed under surrender, and iii) the strengths of contenders at attack and defense. Changes in these parameters display non-monotonic effects.

On the homotopy theory of spectral categories

"Vegeu el resum a l'inici del document del fitxer adjunt."

Role of the c-Jun N-terminal Kinase signaling in pancreatic β-cells

L'insuline est une hormone qui diminue la concentration de sucre dans le sang et qui est produite par la cellule β du pancréas. Un défaut de production de cette hormone est une des causes principales du diabète. Cette perte de production d'insuline est la conséquence à la fois, de la réduction du nombre de cellules β et du mauvais fonctionnement des cellules β restantes. L'inflammation, en activant la voie de signalisation «c-Jun N-terminal Kinase» (JNK) contribue au déclin de ces cellules. Cette voie de signalisation est activée par des protéines telles que des kinases qui reçoivent le signal de stress. Dans ce travail de thèse nous nous sommes intéressés à étudier le rôle de «Dual leucine zipper bearing kinase» (DLK) comme protéine capable de relayer le stress inflammatoire vers l'activation de la voie JNK dans les cellules β-pancréatiques. Nous montrons que DLK est présente dans les cellules β-pancréatiques et qu'elle agit effectivement comme un activateur de la voie de signalisation de JNK. En outre, DLK joue un rôle clé dans le contrôle de l'expression de l'insuline, de la sécrétion de l'insuline en réponse au glucose et au maintien de la survie des cellules β. Si l'expression de cette protéine diminue, la cellule produit moins d'insuline et sera plus sensible à la mort en réponse au stress inflammatoire. A l'inverse si l'expression de DLK est augmentée, la cellule β produit et secrète plus d'insuline. Des variations de l'expression de DLK sont par ailleurs, associées à l'état de santé de la cellule β. Chez la ratte en gestation ou la souris obèse, dans lesquelles la cellule β produit plus d'insuline, l'expression de DLK est augmentée. En revanche dans les cellules β des patients diabétiques, l'expression de DLK est diminuée par rapport aux cellules non malades. En résumé, DLK est nécessaire pour le bon fonctionnement de la cellule β-pancréatique et son expression corrèle avec le degré de santé des cellules, faisant que cette protéine pourrait être une cible thérapeutique potentiel. Les cellules β-pancréatiques ont la capacité de réguler la sécrétion d'insuline en s'adaptant précisément au stimulus et à la glycémie. La fonction de la cellule β est cruciale dans l'homéostasie du glucose puisque sa dysfonction et sa mort mènent au développement des diabètes de type 1 et 2. De nombreuses études suggèrent que l'inflammation pourrait avoir un rôle dans la dysfonction et la destruction de ces cellules dans le diabète de type 2. L'excès chronique de cytokines proinflammatoires accélère le dysfonctionnement de la cellule β pancréatique par un mécanisme qui implique la voie de signalisation «c-Jun N-terminal Kinase» (JNK). L'activation de cette voie est organisée par des protéines d'échafaudages. Elle se fait par trois étapes successives de phosphorylation impliquant une «Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase Kinase Kinase» (MAP3K), une MAP2K et JNK. Dans ce travail de thèse nous montrons l'expression abondante et spécifique de la MAP3K «Dual Leucine Zipper Bearing Kinase» (DLK) dans les cellules β pancréatiques. Cela est la conséquence de l'absence du répresseur transcriptionnel «Repressor Element 1 Silencing Transcription». Nous montrons également que DLK régule l'activation de JNK et qu'il s'avère nécessaire pour la fonction et la survie de la cellule β pancréatique par un mécanisme impliquant le facteur de transcription PDX-1. L'invalidation de l'expression de DLK diminue l'expression de l'insuline et potentialise l'apoptose induite par des cytokines proinflammatoires. A l'inverse, la surexpression de DLK augmente l'expression et la sécrétion d'insuline induites par le glucose. Par conséquent des niveaux d'expression appropriés de DLK sont déterminants pour la fonction et la survie de la cellule β pancréatique. L'obésité et la grossesse sont caractérisées par une hyperinsulinémie qui résulte d'une augmentation de la production et de la sécrétion de l'insuline. L'expression de DLK est augmentée dans des îlots de rattes gestantes et des souris obèses comparés à leurs contrôles respectifs. A l'inverse, dans des sujets diabétiques, l'expression de DLK est diminuée. Ensemble ces résultats montrent l'importance de DLK dans l'adaptation des îlots par un mécanisme qui pourrait impliquer la voie de signalisation de JNK. Des défauts dans cette voie régulée par DLK pourraient contribuer au dysfonctionnement et la mort de la cellule β pancréatique et par conséquent au développement du diabète. L'étude détaillée du mécanisme par lequel DLK active la voie de signalisation JNK et régule la fonction de la cellule β pancréatique pourrait ouvrir la voie des nouvelles thérapies ciblant l'amélioration de la fonction de la cellule β dans le diabète. - Pancreatic β-cells are evidently plastic in their ability to regulate insulin secretion. The quantity of insulin released by these cells varies according to the stimulus, and the prevailing glucose concentration, β-cell function is pivotal in glucose homeostasis, as their dysfunction, and death can lead to development of type 1 and type 2 diabetes. There are numerous reports so far underlying the role of inflammation in dysfunction, and destruction of β-cells, in both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Chronic excess of pro¬inflammatory cytokines promotes a β-cell decline, via induction of the c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) pathway. The activation of the JNK pathway is organized by a scaffold protein-mediated module in which, a three-step phosphorylation cascade occurs. The latter includes, Mitogen activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MAP3K), MAP2K and JNK. In this thesis, we unveil that the MAP3K Dual Leucine Zipper Bearing Kinase (DLK) is selectively, and highly expressed in pancreatic β-cells, as the result from the absence of the transcriptional repressor named, Repressor Element 1 Silencing Transcription (REST). We show that DLK regulates activation of JNK, and is required for β-cell function and survival by modulating the PDX-1 transcription factor. Silencing of DLK expression diminishes insulin expression, and potentiated cytokine-mediated apoptosis. Conversely, overexpression of DLK increased insulin expression, and glucose-induced insulin secretion. Therefore, an appropriate level of DLK is critical for β-cell function and survival. Obesity and pregnancy are characterized by hyperinsulinemia resulting from an increased production and secretion of insulin. In isolated islets of pregnant rats, and obese mice, the expression of DLK was elevated when compared to their respective controls. However, decreased expression of DLK was observed in islets of individuals with diabetes. Taken together, we highlight the importance of DLK in islet adaptation, and describe a mechanism that may involve the JNK signaling. Deficiency in the JNK pathway regulated by DLK may contribute to β-cell failure and death, and thereby development of diabetes. Unraveling the mechanism whereby DLK activates the JNK pathway, and β-cell function, may pave the way for the design of novel therapies, aiming to improve β-cell function and survival in diabetes in general.

A Producer Theory with Business Risks

In this paper, we consider a producer who faces uninsurable business risks due to incomplete spanning of asset markets over stochastic goods market outcomes, and examine how the presence of the uninsurable business risks affects the producer's optimal pricing and production behaviours. Three key (inter-related) results we find are: (1) optimal prices in goods markets comprise ‘markup’ to the extent of market power and ‘premium’ by shadow price of the risks; (2) price inertia as we observe in data can be explained by a joint work of risk neutralization motive and marginal cost equalization condition; (3) the relative responsiveness of risk neutralization motive and marginal cost equalization at optimum is central to the cyclical variation of markups, providing a consistent explanation for procyclical and countercyclical movements. By these results, the proposed theory of producer leaves important implications both micro and macro, and both empirical and theoretical.