Fine-tuning the space, time, and host distribution of mycobacteria in wildlife.

Background. We describe the diversity of two kinds of mycobacteria isolates, environmental mycobacteria and Mycobacterium bovis collected from wild boar, fallow deer, red deer and cattle in Doñana National Park (DNP, Spain), analyzing their association with temporal, spatial and environmental factors. Results. High diversity of environmental mycobacteria species and M. bovis typing patterns (TPs) were found. When assessing the factors underlying the presence of the most common types of both environmental mycobacteria and M. bovis TPs in DNP, we evidenced (i) host species differences in the occurrence, (ii) spatial structuration and (iii) differences in the degree of spatial association of specific types between host species. Co-infection of a single host by two M. bovis TPs occurred in all three wild ungulate species. In wild boar and red deer, isolation of one group of mycobacteria occurred more frequently in individuals not infected by the other group. While only three TPs were detected in wildlife between 1998 and 2003, up to 8 different ones were found during 2006-2007. The opposite was observed in cattle. Belonging to an M. bovis-infected social group was a significant risk factor for mycobacterial infection in red deer and wild boar, but not for fallow deer. M. bovis TPs were usually found closer to water marshland than MOTT. Conclusions. The diversity of mycobacteria described herein is indicative of multiple introduction events and a complex multi-host and multi-pathogen epidemiology in DNP. Significant changes in the mycobacterial isolate community may have taken place, even in a short time period (1998 to 2007). Aspects of host social organization should be taken into account in wildlife epidemiology. Wildlife in DNP is frequently exposed to different species of non-tuberculous, environmental mycobacteria, which could interact with the immune response to pathogenic mycobacteria, although the effects are unknown. This research highlights the suitability of molecular typing for surveys at small spatial and temporal scales.

Simulium (Inaequalium) marins, a new species of black fly (Diptera: Simuliidae) from inselbergs in Brazil

A new species of black fly, Simulium (Inaequalium) marins (Diptera: Simuliidae), is described based on the male, female, pupa and larva. This new species was collected from two localities: a small stream on the Pico dos Marins, a high mountain with granite outcrops in Piquete County, state of São Paulo, and in a small stream in the Serra dos Órgãos National Park, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Paleoparasitological results for rodent coprolites from Santa Cruz Province, Argentina

The aim of this study was to examine the parasite remains present in rodent coprolites collected from the archaeological site Alero Destacamento Guardaparque (ADG) located in the Perito Moreno National Park (Santa Cruz Province, 47º57'S 72º05'W). Forty-eight coprolites were obtained from the layers 7, 6 and 5 of ADG, dated at 6,700 ± 70, 4,900 ± 70 and 3,440 ± 70 years BP, respectively. The faecal samples were processed and examined using paleoparasitological procedures. A total of 582 eggs of parasites were found in 47 coprolites. Samples were positive for eggs of Trichuris sp. (Nematoda: Trichuridae), Calodium sp., Eucoleus sp., Echinocoleus sp. and an unidentified capillariid (Nematoda: Capillariidae) and for eggs of Monoecocestus (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae). Quantitative differences among layer for both coprolites and parasites were recorded. In this study, the specific filiations of parasites, their zoonotic importance, the rodent identity, on the basis of previous zooarchaeological knowledge, and the environmental conditions during the Holocene in the area are discussed.

Bovine tuberculosis in Doñana Biosphere Reserve: the role of wild ungulates as disease reservoirs in the last Iberian lynx strongholds.

Doñana National Park (DNP) in southern Spain is a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve where commercial hunting and wildlife artificial feeding do not take place and traditional cattle husbandry still exists. Herein, we hypothesized that Mycobacterium bovis infection prevalence in wild ungulates will depend on host ecology and that variation in prevalence will reflect variation in the interaction between hosts and environmental risk factors. Cattle bTB reactor rates increased in DNP despite compulsory testing and culling of infected animals. In this study, 124 European wild boar, 95 red deer, and 97 fallow deer were sampled from April 2006 to April 2007 and analyzed for M. bovis infection. Modelling and GIS were used to identify risk factors and intra and inter-species relationships. Infection with M. bovis was confirmed in 65 (52.4%) wild boar, 26 (27.4%) red deer and 18 (18.5%) fallow deer. In the absence of cattle, wild boar M. bovis prevalence reached 92.3% in the northern third of DNP. Wild boar showed more than twice prevalence than that in deer (p<0.001). Modelling revealed that M. bovis prevalence decreased from North to South in wild boar (p<0.001) and red deer (p<0.01), whereas no spatial pattern was evidenced for fallow deer. Infection risk in wild boar was dependent on wild boar M. bovis prevalence in the buffer area containing interacting individuals (p<0.01). The prevalence recorded in this study is among the highest reported in wildlife. Remarkably, this high prevalence occurs in the absence of wildlife artificial feeding, suggesting that a feeding ban alone would have a limited effect on wildlife M. bovis prevalence. In DNP, M. bovis transmission may occur predominantly at the intra-species level due to ecological, behavioural and epidemiological factors. The results of this study allow inferring conclusions on epidemiological bTB risk factors in Mediterranean habitats that are not managed for hunting purposes. Our results support the need to consider wildlife species for the control of bTB in cattle and strongly suggest that bTB may affect animal welfare and conservation.

Fine-tuning the space, time, and host distribution of mycobacteria in wildlife.

BACKGROUND We describe the diversity of two kinds of mycobacteria isolates, environmental mycobacteria and Mycobacterium bovis collected from wild boar, fallow deer, red deer and cattle in Doñana National Park (DNP, Spain), analyzing their association with temporal, spatial and environmental factors. RESULTS High diversity of environmental mycobacteria species and M. bovis typing patterns (TPs) were found. When assessing the factors underlying the presence of the most common types of both environmental mycobacteria and M. bovis TPs in DNP, we evidenced (i) host species differences in the occurrence, (ii) spatial structuration and (iii) differences in the degree of spatial association of specific types between host species. Co-infection of a single host by two M. bovis TPs occurred in all three wild ungulate species. In wild boar and red deer, isolation of one group of mycobacteria occurred more frequently in individuals not infected by the other group. While only three TPs were detected in wildlife between 1998 and 2003, up to 8 different ones were found during 2006-2007. The opposite was observed in cattle. Belonging to an M. bovis-infected social group was a significant risk factor for mycobacterial infection in red deer and wild boar, but not for fallow deer. M. bovis TPs were usually found closer to water marshland than MOTT. CONCLUSIONS The diversity of mycobacteria described herein is indicative of multiple introduction events and a complex multi-host and multi-pathogen epidemiology in DNP. Significant changes in the mycobacterial isolate community may have taken place, even in a short time period (1998 to 2007). Aspects of host social organization should be taken into account in wildlife epidemiology. Wildlife in DNP is frequently exposed to different species of non-tuberculous, environmental mycobacteria, which could interact with the immune response to pathogenic mycobacteria, although the effects are unknown. This research highlights the suitability of molecular typing for surveys at small spatial and temporal scales.

Syphacia sp. (Nematoda: Oxyuridae) in coprolites of Kerodon rupestris Wied, 1820 (Rodentia: Caviidae) from 5,300 years BP in northeastern Brazil

We present the results of paleoparasitological analyses in coprolites of Kerodon rupestris, rodent endemic to rocky areas of Brazil's semiarid region. The coprolites were collected from excavations at the archaeological site of Toca dos Coqueiros, in the National Park of Serra da Capivara, southeastern of state of Piauí. Syphacia sp. (Nematoda: Oxyuridae) eggs were identified in coprolites dated at 5,300 ± 50 years before present. This is the first record of the genus Syphacia in rodent coprolites in the Americas.

Phlebotomus (Legeromyia) multihamatus subg. nov., sp. nov. from Gabon (Diptera: Psychodidae)

During a research project aimed at the study of the Culicinae fauna of Gabon and carried out in the National Park of La Lopé, we captured an unknown sandfly male specimen (genus Phlebotomus) by CDC miniature light trap belonging to a new species for Science. Furthermore, the originality of his genitalia does not allow us to include this species in one of the existing subgenus, thus in this paper we propose the creation of a new subgenus, as Phlebotomus (Legeromyia) multihamatus sp. nov., subg. nov. described from the National Park of La Lopé, through one male captured with CDC miniature light trap. A new species and a new subgenus of sandfly is characterised by a short style with three spines, a paramere wearing a basal hook as well as a basal pouch and the absence of basal lobe on the coxite. The originality of the genitalia of the male gives way to discussion about potential primary homologies between P. multihamatus sp. nov. and Phlebotomus (Abonnencius) fortunatarum, Phlebotomus (Anaphlebotomus) stantoni and Phlebotomus (Euphlebotomus) argentipes, which should be verified for future studies. The discovery of this new species in Gabon must encourage the study of sandflies in this country.

Habitat, morphology and karyotype of the Saharan shrew Crocidura tarfayaensis (Mammalia : Soricidae)

The Saharan shrew Crocidura tarfayaensis Vesmanis and Vesmanis, 1980, has a limited disribution along the Atlantic coast of Sahara, south of Agadir (Morocco) through Western Sahara into Mauritania and is only known from few captures and some owl pellets. Here we report field data from the successful trapping of five specimens of C. tarfayaensis in the Guelmim region. The habitat was characterized by sand dunes along a river, with dense shrubberies of Tamarix sp., the huge grass Erianthus ravennae (Poaceae) and flat bushes of Atriplex glauca var. ifniensis (Chenopodiaceae). Morphological discrimination with C. whitakeri were examined. The chromosomes of C. tarfayaensis revealed a karyotype of 2n = 36, similar to that of the Canary shrew C. canariensis and the Sicilian shrew C. sicula. In conclusion, C. tarfayaensis seems to be a descendant of the presumed continental ancestor of the two island species.

Beyond Prejudice : conservation in the City : a case study from Switzerland

Conservation in the city is challenging because of a continued view that the urban realm is antithetical to nature. This was clearly the case when the first Swiss National Park was established at the beginning of the 20th century. New Swiss legislation brought new approaches to the establishment of natural parks, in particular by including human activities as a logical component in their development. In 2010, a Federal think tank discussed opportunities for launching a new kind of park: the Urban Natural Park. This paper reports an analysis of this discussion, together with the study of the literature dealing with conservation in the city and natural parks. It shows that a clear antagonism between city and nature still remains present, reflected in an implicit hierarchy hidden in the designation of natural parks: wild nature is nominated as the best nature; if not wild, the best nature is identified as rural; if neither wild nor rural, nature is thought not to be the concern of natural park policy. The Swiss Biodiversity Strategy implemented in 2012 is a recent recognition of the importance of urban nature for biodiversity conservation. This recognition, however, condemns urban nature to a special status, situated outside the usual framework of conservation management. I conclude by arguing that anti-urban bias must be addressed because it inhibits effective conservation strategy, prevents the identification of existing environmental qualities of cities and, eventually, has negative impacts on biological conservation outside the city because it fosters urban spreading.

Molecular taxonomy of the Formica rufa group (red wood ants) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae): a new cryptic species in the Swiss Alps?

Because of their beneficial impact on forest ecosystems, European red wood ants (Formica rufa group) are protected by law in many European countries and are considered to be among the most reliable bioindicators of forest stability. However, their taxonomy has been much debated and, unfortunately, it is too often neglected. This happens mainly because the morphology-based method for species delimitation requires lots of time and experience. We therefore employed 9 microsatellite loci and mitochondrial DNA (COI gene) to verify the power of genetic markers for red wood ant species delimitation and to investigate the cryptic diversity of these ants within the Eastern Swiss Alps. We analyzed 83 nests belonging to all red wood ant species that occur in the Swiss National Park area. Genetic data indicated that these species represent different genetic pools. Moreover, results showed that Formica aquilonia YARROW, 1955 and F. paralugubris SEIFERT, 1996 often hybridize within the Park, confirming that these two species are genetically very close and could have diverged only recently. Nevertheless, microsatellites also revealed that one entire population, located in the Minger Valley and morphologically identified as F. lugubris ZETTERSTEDT, 1838, is genetically different to all other analyzed F. lugubris populations found within the same area and to other red wood ant species. These findings, confirmed by mitochondrial DNA analyses, suggest the existence of a new cryptic species within the Eastern Swiss Alps. This putative cryptic species has been provisionally named F. lugubris-A2. These results have a great importance for future conservation plans, monitoring and evolutionary studies on these protected ants.

Avaliação Ecológica das Terras Salgadas - Ilha do Maio, Cabo Verde para Possível Estabelecimento de uma Nova População da Laverca do Raso (Alauda Razae)

A laverca do Raso (Alauda razae) é uma espécie em risco crítico de extinção pois só existe num pequeno ilhéu de 7km2, o ilhéu do Raso em Cabo Verde. As medidas de protecção já adoptadas, não são, aparentemente, suficientes para prevenir os riscos a que esta espécie está ou poderá estar sujeita e que podem incluir grandes períodos de seca, ocorrência de uma catástrofe natural ou a introdução acidental de mamíferos predadores, como gatos e ratos. Assim, torna-se urgente a adopção de outras medidas de protecção da espécie, como por exemplo o estabelecimento de novas populações noutras ilhas. A ilha do Maio, localizada no grupo sul do arquipélago de Cabo Verde, a 200km do Raso, poderá ser um bom local para estabelecer uma nova população da laverca do Raso. A zona litoral das Terras Salgadas é um local potencial para este efeito, uma vez que é um Parque Nacional, protegido por lei e apresenta um habitat potencialmente semelhante ao encontrado no Ilhéu do Raso. No presente estudo procedeu-se à avaliação ecológica das Terras Salgadas de modo a avaliar a possibilidade de aí se estabelecer uma nova população da laverca do Raso. Foram selecionadas 4 áreas litorais (cada uma com 25ha) que foram caracterizadas quanto ao tipo de ocupação do solo, à flora e à fauna, através de pontos de amostragem, transectos lineares, captura de ratos e contagem de insectos nocturnos. Foi dada particular atenção aos factores favoráveis à sobrevivência da cotovia-do-Raso (presença de plantas e insectos de que se alimenta e de locais favoráveis à nidificação) bem como àqueles que constituem riscos (influência humana e presença de predadores). Todos estes dados foram georreferenciados e mapeados. Os resultados obtidos permitiram concluir que, apesar da existência de factores de risco para a introdução da laverca do Raso, existem pelo menos duas áreas estudadas que reúnem as condições potencialmente adequadas ao estabelecimento bem-sucedido de uma nova população desta espécie.

Integrating detection probabilities in species distribution models of amphibians breeding in Mediterranean temporary ponds

Aim  The imperfect detection of species may lead to erroneous conclusions about species-environment relationships. Accuracy in species detection usually requires temporal replication at sampling sites, a time-consuming and costly monitoring scheme. Here, we applied a lower-cost alternative based on a double-sampling approach to incorporate the reliability of species detection into regression-based species distribution modelling.Location  Doñana National Park (south-western Spain).Methods  Using species-specific monthly detection probabilities, we estimated the detection reliability as the probability of having detected the species given the species-specific survey time. Such reliability estimates were used to account explicitly for data uncertainty by weighting each absence. We illustrated how this novel framework can be used to evaluate four competing hypotheses as to what constitutes primary environmental control of amphibian distribution: breeding habitat, aestivating habitat, spatial distribution of surrounding habitats and/or major ecosystems zonation. The study was conducted on six pond-breeding amphibian species during a 4-year period.Results  Non-detections should not be considered equivalent to real absences, as their reliability varied considerably. The occurrence of Hyla meridionalis and Triturus pygmaeus was related to a particular major ecosystem of the study area, where suitable habitat for these species seemed to be widely available. Characteristics of the breeding habitat (area and hydroperiod) were of high importance for the occurrence of Pelobates cultripes and Pleurodeles waltl. Terrestrial characteristics were the most important predictors of the occurrence of Discoglossus galganoi and Lissotriton boscai, along with spatial distribution of breeding habitats for the last species.Main conclusions  We did not find a single best supported hypothesis valid for all species, which stresses the importance of multiscale and multifactor approaches. More importantly, this study shows that estimating the reliability of non-detection records, an exercise that had been previously seen as a naïve goal in species distribution modelling, is feasible and could be promoted in future studies, at least in comparable systems.

Grado de impacto en el suelo y la vegetación en áreas de uso público del Parque Nacional de Tierra del Fuego (Argentina)

En los últimos años, el uso turístico de las áreas protegidas ha aumentado considerablemente, y con él, el grado de impacto. Es por este motivo que se requieren medidas de gestión adecuadas para identificar, conocer y evaluar estos impactos potenciales y así poder actuar ofreciendo un uso recreativo de estas áreas a la vez que se asegura su conservación. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue establecer el grado de impacto que sufre la vegetaciòn y el suelo del Parque Nacional de Tierra del Fuego en las zonas de acampada y compararlas con las áreas adyacentes, como controles. Asimismo, se buscó establecer cuales son los indicadores de impacto de mayor relevancia para poder ser usados como herramientas de gestión. La evaluación se efectuó mediante el muestreo de 40 parcelas, transectas y intertransectas en donde se analizaron variables vegetacionales (cobertura arbórea, arbustiva y herbácea, porcentaje de suelo desnudo, daño en árboles y arbustos, y presencia de raíces expuestas) y del suelo (pH, materia orgánica, densidad aparente y humedad). El grado de impacto se estableció numéricamente con una fórmula matemática en donde se seleccionaron los parámetros evaluados y se corrigieron con factores de correción, dando un impacto clasificado como “compatible” en el área de Río Pipo y “moderado” en el área de Laguna Verde. También se formularon propuestas de manejo para prevenir y/o minimizar los impactos producidos en las zonas de camping.

Subalpine-nival gradient of species richness for vascular plants, lichens and bryophytes in the Swiss Inner Alps

In the European GLORIA project, 12 summits (treeline to nival belt) were inventoried in three regions of Switzerland: two in the Swiss National Park Graubünden and one in Valais. Vascular plants were recorded in all three regions and bryophytes and lichens were recorded only in Valais. On each summit, vegetation and temperature data were sampled using sampling protocols for the GLORIA project (Global Observation Research Initiative in Alpine environment) on large summit sections and in clusters of four 1x1-m quadrats. We observed a general decrease of species richness for all three systematic groups with increasing elevation in the summit sections, but only for vascular plants in the quadrats. In Valais, there was higher species richness for vascular plants than for bryophytes and lichens on the lower summits, but as the decrease in species richness was less pronounced for cryptogams, the latter were more numerous than vascular plants on the highest summit. Vascular species showed a clear shift of the dominant life form with elevation, with chamaephytes replacing hemicryptophytes. Bryophytes and lichens showed a weak trend among the life forms at the summit section scale, but a stronger shift of the dominant forms was seen in the quadrats, with cushion replacing turf bryophytes and crustaceous replacing fruticose lichens. Altogether, these results sustain the temperature-physiographic hypothesis to explain the species richness decrease along the altitudinal gradient: the harsh climatic conditions of the alpine-nival belts act as a filter for species, but the diminishing diversity of microhabitats is also an important factor. Because cryptogams depend more on humidity than temperature and more on smaller microhabitats than vascular plants, the decrease of species richness is more gradual with elevation for bryophytes and lichens.

Behavioural species discrimination in red wood ants (Formica rufa group)

The Formica rufa group (red wood ants) currently includes six species. Nevertheless, during previous work based on molecular markers, we showed the existence of one population morphologically identified as F. lugubris, but genetically different from all other analysed populations of this species. This population could represent a cryptic species within the Swiss National Park and has been provisionally named Formica lugubris-A2. To verify our hypothesis, we conducted a behavioural test based on the ability of ants to recognize pupae of their own species when compared to those of another species. The three red wood ant species present in the Swiss National Park (F. lugubris, F. paralugubris and F. aquilonia) and the F. lugubris-A2 population were used in our study. Results indicate that the F. lugubris-A2 population differs from other F. lugubris and from all other species in the behaviour of its workers and in the way its pupae are discriminated by other species. This is in accordance with the genetic data and strengthens our hypothesis on the existence of a new cryptic red wood ant species within the Swiss National Park.