La expedición de límites de 1750 en la Guayana española: los logros de una tarea que nunca comenzó (Estudios)

This contribution addresses the implications of the boundary demarcation on basin of Orinoco and Amazon, during the second half of the 18th Century, beginning with the study of the expedition of the boundary between Spain and Portugal. This enterprise ended up in a surprise of games of omission, unfortunate and personal confrontations. The undesired task for the Spanish Guayana, however, marked a radically change in the geostrategic valuing and paved way to a latter colonial modernity thanks to the initiative of its commissioners. In this way, an important part of the territorial integrity was preserved against the geographical desires of lustanas and stopped the trafficking of indigenous salves towards the Amazon region.

Resistencia india, conciliación y estrategia militar en Quixos durante la primera mitad del siglo XVIII (Estudios)

During the 18th Century, the northeast of the Amazonian region, especially the jurisdiction of Quixos, was one of the most ignored regions of South America. Its dominions, dependents in part to the Real Audiencia of Quito, did not enjoy sufficient attention from the monarchial administration; therefore, the territorial domination and its natives did not take shape in absolute terms given the difficulties of indigenous resistance against strategies to slowly subordinate and eventually dismantle the Spanish politics of border territories.

Comercio, conflictos y alianzas en la frontera luso-española: Capitanía de Río Negro y provincia de Maynas, 1780-1820 (Estudios)

In the colonial period, the Spanish politics towards the American frontiers was oriented not only to recognition and military protection of the borders, but also to control trade in the regions. During the demarcation of the boundaries in the 18th Century, the smuggling in the borders degenerated in various conflicts between the Spanish and Portuguese authorities. However, illegal trade played an important role en la satisfaction of the provisions in the zone, making possible the establishment of local alliances. This article addresses these questions taking as object the study the border Luso-Spanish in the Amazon Valley, between captaincy of Negro River and the province of Maynas, 1780-1820.

Between writing and type: the stencil letter

An exhibition of stencil letters from the 18th century to the present day. Co-curated by Eric Kindel and Fred Smeijers, the exhibition featured a wide selection of stencil letters in the context of historical artefacts, documents and ephemera, including stencil plates and stencilling devices, specimens and catalogues and patent inventions. The exhibition also introduced a series of new stencil fonts designed by Maurice Göldner, Pierre Pané-Farré and Fred Smeijers. The design of each font made reference to and was informed by the historical material.

Denial of change: the 'Military Revolution' as seen by contemporaries

Writers on military matters from the 14th century until the late 18th century either regretted the decadence of their times compared with Antiquity, or they saw no great change in military affairs since Antiquity. Few saw a revolutionary change ushered in by gunpowder, although this number increased since the great "querelle" about the Ancients and the Moderns under Louis XIV. In the early 19th century, the balance tipped, and few would have denied that technology had profoundly changed warfare. All this is a far cry, however, from any contemporary perception of a "Military Revolution" in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Adobe Bickham Script Greek typeface

Design support for typeface design: collaborative work commissioned by Adobe, Inc. Published 2011. The original Bickham typeface was based on the hands of the 18th century writing master George Bickham. The ornate script represented the apogee of the art of formal writing with a steel nib, and defined the visual style for decorated, formal documents. In 2010 Adobe revised and extended the typeface, with the express purpose of making it a showcase for OpenType technology, demonstrating the visual importance of using different glyph forms in different contexts, employing contextual substitution rules. Although Bickham had published a single example of a Greek style, it was a standalone exercise, never intended to match the Latin. The key challenge was to identify historical records for appropriate Greek writing, preferably by writers familiar with the language, adapt them for digital typography and the particularities of contextual substitution, in a manner that would not make the Greek a ‘second-class citizen’. Research involved uncovering and analysing appropriate contemporary and later writing examples to identify both the range of writing styles of the period, and the manner of joining letters in written Greek with both pointed pens and broad nibs. This work was essential to make up for the comparative lack of relevant material by Bickham, as well as investigating the possible range of stylistic variants that were approved for the final typeface, which attempted to emulate a written texture through complex substitutions. This aspect of the work is highly original for implementing a substantial number of contextual alternates and ligatures. These were reviewed in the context of use, bringing together an analysis of occurring letter combinations and patterns, and the design of stylistic alternates to imitate natural handwriting.

The origins of small wars: from special operations to ideological insurgencies

This edited volume explores the origins of the term small wars and traces it to special operations. In the 17th century, such "guerrilla/petite guerre" special operations grew out of training and winter operations of the regular forces as practiced in the 16th century. In the 18th century, they fused with a tradition going back to Antiquity, of employing special ethnic groups (such as the Hungarian Hussars) for special operations. Side by side with these special operations, however, there was the even older genealogy of uprisings and insurgencies, which since the Spanish Guerrilla of 1808-1812 has been associated with this term. All three traditions have influenced each other.

Assalto ao estado e ao mercado, neoliberalismo e teoria econômica

O Estado e o mercado são instituições complementares. O Estado é a instituição principal que coordena as sociedades modernas; é o sistema constitucional e a organização que o garante; é o principal instrumento através do qual as sociedades democráticas estão moldando o capitalismo de modo a alcançar seus próprios objetivos políticos. Os mercados são instituições baseadas na competição, regulada pelo Estado para que contribuam com a coordenação da economia. Enquanto o liberalismo emergiu no século 18 para combater o estado autocrático, desde os anos 1980 o neoliberalismo (uma distorção maior do liberalismo econômico) tornou-se dominante e montou um assalto ao estado em nome do mercado, mas eventualmente também atacou o mercado. A macroeconomia neoclássica e a teoria da escolha pública foram as meta-ideologias que deram a esse assalto um apelo ‘científico’ e matemático.

Revolução capitalista e formação do estado-nação

The Capitalist Revolution was the period of the transition from the ancient societies to capitalism; it was a long transition that began in the north of Italy, in the 14th century, and for the first time got completed in England, in the second part of the 18th century, with the formation of the nation state and the Industrial Revolution; it is a major rupture, which divided the history of mankind between a period where empires or civilizations prospered and then fell into decadence and disappeared, and a period of ingrained economic development and long-term improvement of standards of living. Since then the different peoples are engaged in the social construction of their nations and their states; since then, they are experiencing economic development, because capitalism is essentially dynamic; since then they are struggling for the political objectives that they historically defined for themselves from that revolution: security, freedom, economic well-being, social justice, and protection of the environment.

Development, progress and economic growth

Progress was an idea of the 18th century; development, a project of the 20th century that continues into the 21st century. Progress was associated with the advance of reason, development with the fulfillment of the five political objectives that modern societies set for themselves: security, freedom, economic well-being, social justice and protection of the environment. Today we can view progress and development as equivalent. Both were products of the capitalist revolution, and of the economic development that began with it. Economic development or growth, in its turn, is the process of capital accumulation with the incorporation of technical progress that, mainly through productive sophistication and the increase of the value of labor, increases wages and improves standards of living. The five objectives that define development, as well as the three social instances existing in society change in an interdependent way.

Povoações, freguesias e vilas na Paraíba Colonial: Pombal e Sousa, 1697-1800

The towns presently named Pombal and Sousa, located in the hinterland of the State of Paraíba, Brazil, still keep vestiges of the colonization process they went through along the 18th and 19th centuries, when they both emerged as settlement nuclei in the extreme West of the then captaincy of Paraíba and attained the status of freguesia and vila in a later period. This research aims to comprehend the process of urban formation and development of the colonial urban nuclei of Pombal and Sousa as they became povoados (hamlets), freguesias (parishes) and vilas (small urban communities with a local government), according to territorial expansion policies implemented by the Portuguese government from 1697 to 1800. The choice of the two urban settlements for this survey lies in the fact that they were part of the great conquest and colonization program undertaken by the Portuguese Crown. Another aspect that was considered was the fact that those towns are the oldest urban nuclei of Paraíba s hinterland. They came into being as early as in the times of the colony, thus producing a favorable environment to the study of the changes that occurred in the captaincy s hinterland scenery resulting from the process of formation and development of the colonial urban space. Three fundamental categories of analysis were defined since they have a direct bearing upon the urban configuration of the two colonization nuclei: povoado, freguesia and vila. The three of them are related to civil and ecclesiastic jurisdictions. Field, documentation and bibliography surveys were undertaken in order to develop the study. They allowed for the finding of vestiges of the old, colonial urban structures and for the development of theoretical analysis based on present-day studies of issues relating to the colonial urban history. The study purposes were, therefore, to try to understand how the old urban nuclei of Pombal and Sousa fit in the territorial expansion policies undertaken by the Portuguese government; to relate the process of urban formation and development of such nuclei with the categories of analysis povoação-freguesia-vila by discussing the relations and influences they exert over one another and their territory, as well as to unveil, as much as possible, the configuration the urban spaces that were shaped along the 18th century

Max Stirner, o único e o que lhe é próprio: uma interpretação e(m) algun(s) ensaio(s)

This work has a study object the main thinking work of Johan Kaspar Schmidt well known as Max Stirner (1806-1856) - originally titled (in German), Der Einzige und sein Eigentun, and translated into Portuguese by the Portuguese publisher Antígona in 2004, under the title The Unique and its Ownership. This book was known in 1844 although its publication dated 1845 seen that the censor of that time rejected the publication request in that year - saying that ( ) in concrete passages of that work, not only God, Christ, the church and the religion are usually object of proposal blasphemy, but also because all social order, the state and the government are defined as something that should not exist simultaneously as one justifies the lie, perjury, the murder and suicide and denies the ownership right. After this first attack and rejection by its bearing the unique come to be others target, due practically to all the philosophical political thinkers its time including thinkers like Ludwig Feuerbach and Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels in spite of, on the other hand, having inspired formulations and reformulations of many of those thinkers that were against then in their times, as well as those thinkers that came after then such as Nietzsche himself. Even though this work was be victim of powerful attempts of erasing it of history, it has shown a great repercussion power and that is the main reason that led us to ask the following questions what is its big originality? , how could his author arrive at a so impactant perspective? What is its most legitimate political place? We endeavored in elaborate answers to those questions trough the exegesis of its text, taking in account both the scholarship environment where the author produced his intellectual life set - and the detailed reading of texts linked to discussion in focus, where this reading is always based upon the meaning and senses traced by the texts and its contexts as a precaution against the limits and the traps of the readings which shed light markedly on strict letter of the phrases constructs. Ours conclusions point at to the idea that a work like this , that subverts the characteristic ways of thought of the modernity, completely, continues being a utter odds, without rank in the history of thought and the moderns political practices, finding parallel possibility only, in a very special way, with a certain autharchic perspective of Ancient Greece

As Memórias de Lacroix: a instrução pública na França revolucionária, em geral, e o ensino de Matemática, em particular

O artigo - um exame hermenêutico do livro Essais sur l'enseignement en général, et sur celui des mathématiques en particulier, de 1805, de Sylvestre-François Lacroix, enfatizando sua segunda parte, na qual o autor discute seu Curso de Matemática Elementar, uma série de manuais escolares elaborados para a Escola Central das Quatro Nações - tem sua fundamentação ligada à Hermenêutica de Profundidade de Thompson conjugada a procedimentos de investigação textual sugeridos por Genette quanto aos paratextos editoriais. Defende que o livro de Lacroix é uma obra auto-referencial, de cunho claramente autobiográfico, que responde mais aos ideais iluministas da França do Setecentos que às perspectivas do século XIX, quando a obra circulou, tendo sido reeditada por quatro vezes, sob Napoleão, na primeira metade do Oitocentos. Raramente focalizado em trabalhos de pesquisa, o livro - cujas edições estão disponíveis eletronicamente - tem uma única tradução, ainda inédita, para o português.

História da saúde mental infantil: a criança brasileira da Colônia à República Velha

Este texto descreve a trajetória da Saúde Mental e dos cuidados à infância no Brasil da Colônia à República Velha. No período colonial não havia cuidados especiais à criança. O que temos para compreender a criança colonial são relatos descritos em documentos, tratados e cartas da época, e em descrições de viajantes que aqui aportaram para conhecer o Novo Mundo. Depois do século XVIII a urbanização das cidades requer a intervenção médica nas questões de higiene e saúde, e gradativamente muda a concepção de criança, primeiro na Europa, depois no Brasil, chegando o século XIX com médicos preocupados com a questão da mortalidade infantil e com os cuidados que se deveria ter com a criança, negligenciada até então. É no século XIX que se inicia a institucionalização dos saberes médicos e psicológicos aplicados à infância e é quando podemos obter mais registros sobre que cuidados eram reservados à criança.

Lima, uma cidade entre a aristocracia e a plebe (1950-1980)

The city of Lima has undergone serious changes over the past sixty years. Until the middle of the last century, Lima retained an urban structure similar to that built in the 18th century, during the final decades of its colonial period. This reality began to change with the abrupt onset of migration from the mountain ranges to the coast in 1946. However, rather than changes in its urban plan, Lima underwent a ethnic and social reconfiguration that would bring new color and new cultural and behavioral norms to the Peruvian capital. The arrival of migrants to the city caused a conservative reaction in the local elites, but it also sparked a need for the intelligentsia to develop new ways of thinking about the place of migrants in the space of the city, and on the other hand, to create new representations of the city itself. From being a city isolated from the rest of the country, Lima came to live with a range of cultural and ethnic references. It did so, however, without creating greater opportunities for the integration of the masses within the urban and social logic of the city, thus making clear the separation between the aristocracy and the general populace.