CD137-selektierte leukämiereaktive T-Zellen gesunder Spender zur adoptiven Immuntherapie stammzelltransplantierter Leukämiepatienten = CD137-selected leukaemia-reactive T Cells from healthy donors for adoptive immunotherapy in stem-cell-transplanted leukaemia-patients

Bei stammzelltransplantierten Patienten, die ein Rezidiv ihrer Leukämie erleiden, kann eine Donor-Lymphozyten-Infusion (DLI) dauerhafte vollständige Leukämieremissionen induzieren. T-Zellen in der DLI vermitteln sowohl den potentiell kurativen Graft-versus-Leukaemia (GVL) Effekt, als auch die potentiell lebensbedrohliche Graft-versus-Host Disease (GVHD). Hingegen könnte die Infusion von leukämiereaktiven T-Zellen einen selektiven GVL Effekt und einen Langzeitschutz vor Rezidiven durch eine spezifisch gegen die Leukämie gerichtete Immunantwort und Immunität vermitteln. Unsere Arbeitsgruppe hat Protokolle zur in vitro Generierung leukämiereaktiver T-Zellen entwickelt, die hohe zytotoxische Aktivität gegen akute myeloische Leukämie-Blasten (AML) bei minimaler Reaktion auf mögliche GVHD Zielstrukturen zeigen. Für die klinische Anwendung sind diese Protokolle jedoch zu aufwändig, wobei vor allem eine erhebliche Verkürzung der Kulturzeit auf wenige Wochen erforderlich ist. Diese Verkürzung der in vitro Kulturzeit könnte das Wachstum von T-Zellen vom central memory oder frühen effector memory Phänotyp fördern, für die eine bessere in vivo Effektorfunktion und längere Persistenz im Rezipienten verglichen mit T-Zellen aus Langzeitkultur gezeigt werden konnte. Der Aktivierungsmarker und Kostimulations-Rezeptor CD137 kann zur Erkennung und Isolation antigenspezifischer T-Zellen genutzt werden, ohne dass dafür das von den T-Zellen erkannte Peptidepitop bekannt sein muss. Eine CD137-vermittelte Anreicherung mit Hilfe von clinical grade Materialien könnte verwendet werden, um DLI-Produkte mit leukämiespezifischen T-Zellen herzustellen, die sich sowohl durch eine effizientere T-Zell Generierung durch in vitro Selektion und Kostimulation, als auch durch eine verbesserte Spezifität des T-Zell-Produkts auszeichnen. Lymphozyten-Leukämie Cokulturen (mixed lymphocyte leukaemia cultures) wurden mit CD8 T-Zellen gesunder Spender und HLA-identischen oder einzel-HLA-mismatch AML-Blasten angesetzt und wöchentlich restimuliert. Nach zwei Wochen wurden die T-Zellen 12 Stunden nach Restimulation über den Marker CD137 positiv isoliert und anschließend separat weiterkultiviert. Die isolierten Fraktionen und unseparierten Kontrollen wurden im ELISPOT-Assay und im Chrom-Freisetzungstest an Tag 5 nach der Restimulation getestet. Es wurden keine konsistent nachweisbaren Vorteile im Hinblick auf Wachstum und Funktion der isolierten CD137-positiv Fraktion im Vergleich zur unseparierten Kontrolle gefunden. Verschiedene Isolationsmethoden, Patient-Spender-Systeme, Methoden zur Restimulation, Temperaturbedingungen, Zytokinkombinationen und Methoden der Zytokinzugabe sowie zusätzliche Feeder-Zellen oder AML-Blasten konnten Wachstum, funktionelle Daten und die deutlichen Zellverluste während der Isolation nicht entscheidend beeinflussen. Vitalfärbungen zeigten, dass aktivierungsinduzierter Zelltod CD137-positiver Zellen zu diesen Ergebnissen beitragen könnte. Im Gegensatz zur Stimulation mit AML-Blasten wurden erfolgreiche CD137-Anreicherungen für peptidstimulierte T-Zellen publiziert. Unterschiedliche CD137-Expressionskinetiken, aktivierungsinduzierter Zelltod und regulatorische T-Zellen sind mögliche Faktoren aufgrund derer die CD137-Anreicherung in diesem spezifischen Kontext ungeeinet sein könnte. Der stimulatorische Effekt eines CD137-Signals auf AML-reaktive CD8 T-Zellen wurde mit Hilfe von CD3/CD28 und CD3/CD28/CD137 Antikörper-beschichteten magnetischen beads untersucht. Für Nierenzellkarzinom-reaktive T-Zellen war die Stimulation mit CD3/CD28/CD137 beads genauso effektiv wie mit Tumorzellen und effektiver als mit CD3/CD28 beads. Beide Arten von beads waren für eine Stimulation während der ersten Wochen der Zellkultur geeignet, sodass ein zusätzliches CD137-Signal für die länger anhaltende Expansion tumorreaktiver T-Zellen zur klinischen Anwendung nützlich sein könnte. Die bead-Expansion veränderte die IFN-Sekretion im ELISPOT nicht, aber verursachte eine mäßige Verschlechterung der Zytotoxizität im Chrom-Freisetzungstest. Im Gegensatz dazu zeigten bei AML-reaktiven T-Zellen beide Arten von beads einen nicht apoptosevermittelten, dosisabhängigen zellschädigenden Effekt, der zu einer raschen Abnahme der Zellzahl in Kulturen mit beads führte. Unerwünschte Effekte auf die T-Zell-Funktionalität durch bead-Stimulation sind in der Literatur beschrieben, dennoch gibt es aktuell keine Veröffentlichungen, die eine fundierte Erklärung für den Effekt auf AML-reaktive T-Zellen bieten könnten. Abgesehen von Literaturdaten, die darauf hindeuten, dass CD137 ein vielversprechendes Kandidatenmolekül für die Anreicherung und Expansion von AML-reaktiven T-Zellen sein könnte, zeigen die eigenen Daten sowohl zur CD137-Isolation als auch zur bead-Stimulation, dass für diese spezielle Anwendung CD137 ein ungeeigneter Aktivierungsmarker und Kostimulations-Ligand ist.

The role of SENP1 in B cell development and differentiation

SUMOylation is a highly dynamic and reversible posttranslational protein modification closely related to ubiquitination. SUMOylation regulates a vast array of different cellular functions, such as cell cycle, nuclear transport, DNA damage response, proliferation and transcriptional activation. Several groups have shown in in vitro studies how important SUMOylation is for early B cell development and survival as well as for later plasma cell differentiation. This thesis focuses on the deSUMOylation protease SENP1 and its in vivo effects on B cell development and differentiation. For this a conditional SENP1 knockout mouse model was crossed to the CD19-Cre mouse strain to generate a B cell specific SENP1 knockout mouse.rnIn our conditional SENP1ff CD19-Cre mouse model we observed normal numbers of all B cell subsets in the bone marrow. However in the spleen we observed an impairment of B cell survival, based on a 50% reduction of the follicular B cell compartment, whereas the marginal zone B cell compartment was unchanged. T cell numbers were comparable to control mice. rnFurther, impairments of B cell survival in SENP1ff CD19-Cre mice were analysed after in vivo blocking of IL7R signalling. The αIL7R treatment in mature mice blocked new B cell formation in the bone marrow and increased apoptosis rates could be observed in splenic SENP1 KO B cells. Additionally, a higher turnover rate of B cells was measured by in vivo BrdU incorporation.rnSince it is known that the majority of transcription factors that are important for the maintenance of the germinal centre reaction or for induction of plasma cell development are SUMOylated, the question arose, how defective deSUMOylation will manifest itself in these processes. The majority of in vitro cultured splenic B cells, stimulated to undergo class switch recombination and plasma cell differentiation underwent activation induced cell death. However, the surviving cells increasingly differentiated into IgM expressing plasma cells. Class switch recombination to IgG1 was reduced. These observations stood in line with observation made in in vivo sheep red blood cell immunization experiments, which showed increased amounts of germinal centres and germinal centre B cells, as well as increased amounts of plasma cells differentiation in combination with decreased class switch to IgG1.rnThese results lead to the conclusion that SENP1 KO B cells increasingly undergo apoptosis, however, B cells that survive SENP1 deficiency are more prone to undergo plasma cell differentiation. Further, the precursors of these plasma cells either are not as capable of undergoing class switch recombination or they do switch to IgG1 and succumb to activation induced cell death. One possible explanation for both scenarios could be a defective DNA damage response mechanisms during class switch recombination, caused by impaired deSUMOylation. rn

Die Synthese von Mucin-Glycopeptid-Vakzinkonjugaten und Adjuvanzien für eine potentielle Krebsimmuntherapie

Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Synthese von unterschiedlichen tumorassoziierten Antigenen, die in Form von glycosylierten Aminosäurebausteinen durch Festphasensynthese in den tandem repeat des epithelialen Mucin MUC1 eingebaut wurden. Zur Erzeugung von selektiven Immunantworten wurden synthetische MUC1-Glycopeptide über einen nicht immunogenen Spacer mit einer Reihe von Immunstimulanzien umgesetzt. Es wurden hierbei zwei Ziele verfolgt. Zum einen sollten mit Hilfe von synthetischen MUC1-Glycopeptiden und Immunstimulanzien cytotoxische T-Zellen ausgebildet werden, die Tumorzellen mit überexprimiertem MUC1 am Wachstum hindern und sie in den programmierten Zelltod treiben. Zum anderen sollte mit Hilfe von TH2-Epitopen eine adaptive humorale B-Zell-vermittelte Immunantwort in Form von Antikörpern ausgelöst werden. Zur Ausbildung von cytotoxischen T-Zellen kamen Vakzinkonjugate zum Einsatz, die aus dem IL-1β(163 – 169), dem TLR2-Agonisten (Pam3Cys-Ser-Lys4) oder dem TLR4-Agonisten (spacergebundenes MPL A) bestehen und jeweils an MUC1-Glycopeptide konjugiert wurden. Darüber hinaus wurde eine neue moderne Syntheseroute für das MPL-A entwickelt, welches als Adjuvans in den verschiedenen Vakzinen, wie Cervarix®, Fendrix® und Stimuvax®, Verwendung findet und die Immunantwort der Vakzinkonstrukte nochmals verstärken sollte. Zur Induktion von Antikörpern kamen die OVA(323 – 339)-, die Tetanus-Toxoid- und die BSA-Konjugate zur Anwendung, an denen MUC1-Glycopeptide angeknüpft wurden.

Blebbing confers resistance against cell lysis

The plasma membrane constitutes a barrier that maintains the essential differences between the cytosol and the extracellular environment. Plasmalemmal injury is a common event during the life of many cells that often leads to their premature, necrotic death. Blebbing - a display of plasmalemmal protrusions - is a characteristic feature of injured cells. In this study, we disclose a previously unknown role for blebbing in furnishing resistance to plasmalemmal injury. Blebs serve as precursors for injury-induced intracellular compartments that trap damaged segments of the plasma membrane. Hence, loss of cytosol and the detrimental influx of extracellular constituents are confined to blebs that are sealed off from the cell body by plugs of annexin A1 - a Ca(2+)- and membrane-binding protein. Our findings shed light on a fundamental process that contributes to the survival of injured cells. By targeting annexin A1/blebbing, new therapeutic approaches could be developed to avert the necrotic loss of cells in a variety of human pathologies.

Drug antigenicity, immunogenicity, and costimulatory signaling: evidence for formation of a functional antigen through immune cell metabolism

Recognition of drugs by immune cells is usually explained by the hapten model, which states that endogenous metabolites bind irreversibly to protein to stimulate immune cells. Synthetic metabolites interact directly with protein-generating antigenic determinants for T cells; however, experimental evidence relating intracellular metabolism in immune cells and the generation of physiologically relevant Ags to functional immune responses is lacking. The aim of this study was to develop an integrated approach using animal and human experimental systems to characterize sulfamethoxazole (SMX) metabolism-derived antigenic protein adduct formation in immune cells and define the relationship among adduct formation, cell death, costimulatory signaling, and stimulation of a T cell response. Formation of SMX-derived adducts in APCs was dose and time dependent, detectable at nontoxic concentrations, and dependent on drug-metabolizing enzyme activity. Adduct formation above a threshold induced necrotic cell death, dendritic cell costimulatory molecule expression, and cytokine secretion. APCs cultured with SMX for 16 h, the time needed for drug metabolism, stimulated T cells from sensitized mice and lymphocytes and T cell clones from allergic patients. Enzyme inhibition decreased SMX-derived protein adduct formation and the T cell response. Dendritic cells cultured with SMX and adoptively transferred to recipient mice initiated an immune response; however, T cells were stimulated with adducts derived from SMX metabolism in APCs, not the parent drug. This study shows that APCs metabolize SMX; subsequent protein binding generates a functional T cell Ag. Adduct formation above a threshold stimulates cell death, which provides a maturation signal for dendritic cells.

Fas death receptor signalling: roles of Bid and XIAP

Fas (also called CD95 or APO-1), a member of a subgroup of the tumour necrosis factor receptor superfamily that contain an intracellular death domain, can initiate apoptosis signalling and has a critical role in the regulation of the immune system. Fas-induced apoptosis requires recruitment and activation of the initiator caspase, caspase-8 (in humans also caspase-10), within the death-inducing signalling complex. In so-called type 1 cells, proteolytic activation of effector caspases (-3 and -7) by caspase-8 suffices for efficient apoptosis induction. In so-called type 2 cells, however, killing requires amplification of the caspase cascade. This can be achieved through caspase-8-mediated proteolytic activation of the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 homology domain (BH)3-only protein BH3-interacting domain death agonist (Bid), which then causes mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilisation. This in turn leads to mitochondrial release of apoptogenic proteins, such as cytochrome c and, pertinent for Fas death receptor (DR)-induced apoptosis, Smac/DIABLO (second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase/direct IAP binding protein with low Pi), an antagonist of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP), which imposes a brake on effector caspases. In this review, written in honour of Juerg Tschopp who contributed so much to research on cell death and immunology, we discuss the functions of Bid and XIAP in the control of Fas DR-induced apoptosis signalling, and we speculate on how this knowledge could be exploited to develop novel regimes for treatment of cancer.

Inflammation-associated autophagy-related programmed necrotic death of human neutrophils characterized by organelle fusion events

The most common form of neutrophil death, under both physiological and inflammatory conditions, is apoptosis. In this study, we report a novel form of programmed necrotic cell death, associated with cytoplasmic organelle fusion events, that occurs in neutrophils exposed to GM-CSF and other inflammatory cytokines upon ligation of CD44. Strikingly, this type of neutrophil death requires PI3K activation, a signaling event usually involved in cellular survival pathways. In the death pathway reported in this study, PI3K is required for the generation of reactive oxygen species, which somehow trigger the generation of large cytoplasmic vacuoles, generated by the fusion of CD44-containing endosomes with autophagosomes and secondary, but not primary, granules. Neutrophils demonstrating vacuolization undergo rapid cell death that depends on receptor-interacting protein 1 kinase activity and papain family protease(s), but not caspases, that are most likely activated and released, respectively, during or as a consequence of organelle fusion. Vacuolized neutrophils are present in infectious and autoimmune diseases under in vivo conditions. Moreover, isolated neutrophils from such patients are highly sensitive toward CD44-mediated PI3K activation, reactive oxygen species production, and cell death, suggesting that the newly described autophagy-related form of programmed neutrophil necrosis plays an important role in inflammatory responses.

Granulocyte death regulation by naturally occurring autoantibodies

Programmed cell death (PCD) plays a central role in the regulation of granulocytes that are key effector cells of the innate immune system. Granulocytes are produced in high amounts in the bone marrow. A safe elimination of granulocytes by cell death (apoptosis) is essential to maintain the numbers of these cells balanced. In many acute and chronic inflammatory diseases, delayed apoptosis is one mechanism that contributes to accumulation of neutrophil and eosinophil granulocytes at the site of inflammation. On the other hand, a safe elimination of granulocytes by cell death is required to avoid unwanted tissue damage for instance by secretion of toxic products from these cells. Recent evidence shows that humans produce an array of naturally occurring autoantibodies (NAbs) with the capacity to regulate granulocyte death, including agonistic and antagonistic NAbs that bind to the receptors Fas, Siglec-8, and Siglec-9. Together with other factors, these various NAbs exhibit different properties in terms of the form of cell death they induce, the molecular signaling pathways they engage, as well as the efficacy or potency by which they induce cell death. Moreover, several regulatory mechanisms seem to exist that control their biological activity. Novel insights support the concept of granulocyte death regulation by NAbs, which might have important implications for our understanding of the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory diseases, including many autoimmune and allergic disorders.

Modulation of NF-kappaB activation in Theileria annulata-infected cloned cell lines is associated with detection of parasite-dependent IKK signalosomes and disruption of the actin cytoskeleton

Summary Apicomplexan parasites within the genus Theileria have the ability to induce continuous proliferation and prevent apoptosis of the infected bovine leukocyte. Protection against apoptosis involves constitutive activation of the bovine transcription factor NF-kappaB in a parasite-dependent manner. Activation of NF-kappaB is thought to involve recruitment of IKK signalosomes at the surface of the macroschizont stage of the parasite, and it has been postulated that additional host proteins with adaptor or scaffolding function may be involved in signalosome formation. In this study two clonal cell lines were identified that show marked differences in the level of activated NF-kappaB. Further characterization of these lines demonstrated that elevated levels of activated NF-kappaB correlated with increased resistance to cell death and detection of parasite-associated IKK signalosomes, supporting results of our previous studies. Evidence was also provided for the existence of host- and parasite-dependent NF-kappaB activation pathways that are influenced by the architecture of the actin cytoskeleton. Despite this influence, it appears that the primary event required for formation of the parasite-dependent IKK signalosome is likely to be an interaction between a signalosome component and a parasite-encoded surface ligand.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and Purkinje cell loss in autosomal recessive spastic ataxia of Charlevoix-Saguenay (ARSACS)

Autosomal recessive spastic ataxia of Charlevoix-Saguenay (ARSACS) is a childhood-onset neurological disease resulting from mutations in the SACS gene encoding sacsin, a 4,579-aa protein of unknown function. Originally identified as a founder disease in Québec, ARSACS is now recognized worldwide. Prominent features include pyramidal spasticity and cerebellar ataxia, but the underlying pathology and pathophysiological mechanisms are unknown. We have generated an animal model for ARSACS, sacsin knockout mice, that display age-dependent neurodegeneration of cerebellar Purkinje cells. To explore the pathophysiological basis for this observation, we examined the cell biological properties of sacsin. We show that sacsin localizes to mitochondria in non-neuronal cells and primary neurons and that it interacts with dynamin-related protein 1, which participates in mitochondrial fission. Fibroblasts from ARSACS patients show a hyperfused mitochondrial network, consistent with defects in mitochondrial fission. Sacsin knockdown leads to an overly interconnected and functionally impaired mitochondrial network, and mitochondria accumulate in the soma and proximal dendrites of sacsin knockdown neurons. Disruption of mitochondrial transport into dendrites has been shown to lead to abnormal dendritic morphology, and we observe striking alterations in the organization of dendritic fields in the cerebellum of knockout mice that precedes Purkinje cell death. Our data identifies mitochondrial dysfunction/mislocalization as the likely cellular basis for ARSACS and indicates a role for sacsin in regulation of mitochondrial dynamics.

Galectin-3 modulates T cell activity and is reduced in the inflamed intestinal epithelium in IBD

BACKGROUND: Galectins are involved at different stages in inflammation. Galectin-3, although mostly described as proinflammatory, can also act as an immunomodulator by inducing apoptosis in T cells. The present study aims to determine galectin-3 expression in the normal and inflamed intestinal mucosa and to define its role in T cell activity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Galectin-3 was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction with total RNA from endoscopic biopsies and by immunohistochemistry. Biopsies and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were stimulated in vitro and were used to assess the functional consequences of inhibition or exogenous addition of galectin-3. RESULTS: Galectin-3 is expressed at comparable levels in controls and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients in remission. In the normal mucosa, galectin-3 protein was mainly observed in differentiated enterocytes, preferentially at the basolateral side. However, galectin-3 was significantly downregulated in inflamed biopsies from IBD patients. Ex vivo stimulation of uninflamed biopsies with tumor necrosis factor led to similar galectin-3 messenger RNA downregulation as in vivo. When peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were analyzed, galectin-3 was mainly produced by monocytes. Upon mitogen stimulation, we observed increased proliferation and decreased activation-induced cell death of peripheral blood T cells in the presence of galectin-3-specific small interfering RNA. In contrast, exogenous addition of recombinant galectin-3 led to reduced proliferation of mitogen-stimulated peripheral blood T cells. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that downregulation of epithelial galectin-3 in the inflamed mucosa reflects a normal immunological consequence, whereas under noninflammatory conditions, its constitutive expression may help to prevent inappropriate immune responses against commensal bacteria or food compounds. Therefore, galectin-3 may prove valuable for manipulating disease activity.

Immune cell-mediated liver injury

Liver diseases represent an important cause of morbidity and mortality in the world. Death of hepatocytes and other hepatic cell types is a characteristic feature of several forms of liver injury such as cholestasis, viral hepatitis, drug- or toxin-induced injury, and alcohol-induced liver damage. Moreover, irrespectively of the reason, liver injury seems to be facilitated by similar immune effector mechanisms common to these various liver diseases. Indeed, common immune effector mechanisms may explain the high prevalence of cirrhosis and cancer development in most forms of liver disease. Improved understanding of the immune cell-mediated mechanisms involved in hepatocyte cell death could be beneficial for the development of common therapeutic strategies against different forms of liver diseases. In this review, we will discuss novel findings on the role of different immune cells in liver disease and immune cell-induced death executioner mechanisms involved in hepatocyte cell death.

Distinct requirements for activation-induced cell surface expression of preformed Fas/CD95 ligand and cytolytic granule markers in T cells

Fas (CD95/Apo-1) ligand is a potent inducer of apoptosis and one of the major killing effector mechanisms of cytotoxic T cells. Thus, Fas ligand activity has to be tightly regulated, involving various transcriptional and post-transcriptional processes. For example, preformed Fas ligand is stored in secretory lysosomes of activated T cells, and rapidly released by degranulation upon reactivation. In this study, we analyzed the minimal requirements for activation-induced degranulation of Fas ligand. T cell receptor activation can be mimicked by calcium ionophore and phorbol ester. Unexpectedly, we found that stimulation with phorbol ester alone is sufficient to trigger Fas ligand release, whereas calcium ionophore is neither sufficient nor necessary. The relevance of this process was confirmed in primary CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells and NK cells. Although the activation of protein kinase(s) was absolutely required for Fas ligand degranulation, protein kinase C or A were not involved. Previous reports have shown that preformed Fas ligand co-localizes with other markers of cytolytic granules. We found, however, that the activation-induced degranulation of Fas ligand has distinct requirements and involves different mechanisms than those of the granule markers CD63 and CD107a/Lamp-1. We conclude that activation-induced degranulation of Fas ligand in cytotoxic lymphocytes is differently regulated than other classical cytotoxic granule proteins.

Life and death partners: apoptosis, autophagy and the cross-talk between them

It is not surprising that the demise of a cell is a complex well-controlled process. Apoptosis, the first genetically programmed death process identified, has been extensively studied and its contribution to the pathogenesis of disease well documented. Yet, apoptosis does not function alone to determine a cell's fate. More recently, autophagy, a process in which de novo-formed membrane-enclosed vesicles engulf and consume cellular components, has been shown to engage in a complex interplay with apoptosis. In some cellular settings, it can serve as a cell survival pathway, suppressing apoptosis, and in others, it can lead to death itself, either in collaboration with apoptosis or as a back-up mechanism when the former is defective. The molecular regulators of both pathways are inter-connected; numerous death stimuli are capable of activating either pathway, and both pathways share several genes that are critical for their respective execution. The cross-talk between apoptosis and autophagy is therefore quite complex, and sometimes contradictory, but surely critical to the overall fate of the cell. Furthermore, the cross-talk is a key factor in the outcome of death-related pathologies such as cancer, its development and treatment.

Eomesodermin, a target gene of Pou4f2, is required for retinal ganglion cell and optic nerve development in the mouse.

The mechanisms regulating retinal ganglion cell (RGC) development are crucial for retinogenesis and for the establishment of normal vision. However, these mechanisms are only vaguely understood. RGCs are the first neuronal lineage to segregate from pluripotent progenitors in the developing retina. As output neurons, RGCs display developmental features very distinct from those of the other retinal cell types. To better understand RGC development, we have previously constructed a gene regulatory network featuring a hierarchical cascade of transcription factors that ultimately controls the expression of downstream effector genes. This has revealed the existence of a Pou domain transcription factor, Pou4f2, that occupies a key node in the RGC gene regulatory network and that is essential for RGC differentiation. However, little is known about the genes that connect upstream regulatory genes, such as Pou4f2 with downstream effector genes responsible for RGC differentiation. The purpose of this study was to characterize the retinal function of eomesodermin (Eomes), a T-box transcription factor with previously unsuspected roles in retinogenesis. We show that Eomes is expressed in developing RGCs and is a mediator of Pou4f2 function. Pou4f2 directly regulates Eomes expression through a cis-regulatory element within a conserved retinal enhancer. Deleting Eomes in the developing retina causes defects reminiscent of those in Pou4f2(-/-) retinas. Moreover, myelin ensheathment in the optic nerves of Eomes(-/-) embryos is severely impaired, suggesting that Eomes regulates this process. We conclude that Eomes is a crucial regulator positioned immediately downstream of Pou4f2 and is required for RGC differentiation and optic nerve development.