Environmental rights or a right to the environment? Exploring the nexus between human rights and environmental protection.

The importance of the environment to the fulfilment of human rights is widely accepted at international law. What is less well-accepted is the proposition that we, as humans, possess rights to the environment beyond what is necessary to support our basic human needs. The suggestion that a human right to a healthy environment may be emerging at international law raises a number of theoretical and practical challenges for human rights law, with such challenges coming from both within and outside the human rights discourse. It is argued that human rights law can make a positive contribution to environmental protection, but the precise nature of the connection between the environment and human rights warrants more critical analysis. This short paper considers the different ways that the environment is conceptualised in international human rights law and analyses the proposition that a right to a healthy environment is emerging. It identifies some of the challenges which would need to be overcome before such a right could be recognised, including those which draw on the disciplines of deep ecology and earth jurisprudence.

Nitric oxide synthase type-II is synthesized by human gingival tissue and cultured human gingival fibroblasts

Nitric oxide is known to be an important inflammatory mediator, and is implicated in the pathophysiology of a range of inflammatory disorders. The aim of this study was to determine the localization and distribution of endothelial NOS (NOS-II) in human gingival tissue, and to ascertain if human gingival fibroblasts express NOS-II when stimulated with interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) and bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The distribution of NOS-II in inflamed and non-inflamed specimens of human gingivae was studied using a monoclonal antibody against nitric oxide synthase II. Cultures of fibroblasts derived from healthy human gingivae were used for the cell culture experiments. The results from immunohistochemical staining of the tissues indicated an upregulation of NOS-II expression in inflamed compared to non-inflamed gingival tissue. Fibroblasts and inflammatory cells within the inflamed connective tissue were positively stained for NOS-II. In addition, basal keratinocytes also stained strongly for NOS-II, in both healthy and inflamed tissue sections. When cultured human gingival fibroblasts were stimulated by INF-gamma and Porphyromonas gingivalis LPS, NOS-II was more strongly expressed than when the cells were exposed to LPS or IFN-gamma alone. These data suggest that, as for other inflammatory diseases, NO plays a role in the pathophysiology of periodontitis.

Effect of lipopolysaccharide from periodontal pathogens on the production of tissue plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor 2 by human gingival fibroblasts.

Both tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) and plasminogen activator inhibitor 2 (PAI-2) are important proteolysis factors present in inflamed human periodontal tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the synthesis of t-PA and PAI-2 by human gingival fibroblasts (HGF). LPS from different periodontal pathogens including Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Fusobacterium nucleatum were extracted by the hot phenol water method. The levels of t-PA and PAI-2 secreted into the cell culture media were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). The mRNA for t-PA and PAI-2 were measured by RT-PCR. The results showed t-PA synthesis was increased in response to all types of LPS studied and PAI-2 level was increased by LPS from A. actinomycetemcomitans and F. nucleatum, but not P. gingivalis. When comparing the effects of LPS from non-periodontal bacteria (Escherichia coli and Salmonella enteritidis) with the LPS from periodontal pathogens, we found that the ratio of t-PA to PAI-2 was greater following exposure of the cells to LPS from periodontal pathogens. The highest ratio of t-PA to PAI-2 was found in those cells exposed to LPS from P. gingivalis. These results indicate that LPS derived from periodontal pathogens may cause unbalanced regulation of plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor by HGF and such an effect may, in part, contribute to the destruction of periodontal connective tissue through dysregulated pericellular proteolysis.

Wide-field assessment of the human corneal subbasal nerve plexus in diabetic neuropathy using a novel mapping technique

To develop a rapid optimized technique of wide-field imaging of the human corneal subbasal nerve plexus. A dynamic fixation target was developed and, coupled with semiautomated tiling software, a rapid method of capturing and montaging multiple corneal confocal microscopy images was created. To illustrate the utility of this technique, wide-field maps of the subbasal nerve plexus were produced in 2 participants with diabetes, 1 with and 1 without neuropathy. The technique produced montages of the central 3 mm of the subbasal corneal nerve plexus. The maps seem to show a general reduction in the number of nerve fibers and branches in the diabetic participant with neuropathy compared with the individual without neuropathy. This novel technique will allow more routine and widespread use of subbasal nerve plexus mapping in clinical and research situations. The significant reduction in the time to image the corneal subbasal nerve plexus should expedite studies of larger groups of diabetic patients and those with other conditions affecting nerve fibers. The inferior whorl and the surrounding areas may show the greatest loss of nerve fibers in individuals with diabetic neuropathy, but this should be further investigated in a larger cohort.

Spot the differences in traditional and social entrepreneurial intention : highlighting the role of human and social capital

There is general agreement in the scientific community that entrepreneurship plays a central role in the growth and development of an economy in rapidly changing environments (Acs & Virgill 2010). In particular, when business activities are regarded as a vehicle for sustainable growth at large, that goes beyond mere economic returns of singular entities, encompassing also social problems and heavily relying on collaborative actions, then we more precisely fall into the domain of ‘social entrepreneurship’(Robinson et al. 2009). In the entrepreneurship literature, prior studies demonstrated the role of intentionality as the best predictor of planned behavior (Ajzen 1991), and assumed that the intention to start a business derives from the perception of desirability and feasibility and from a propensity to act upon an opportunity (Fishbein & Ajzen 1975). Recognizing that starting a business is an intentional act (Krueger et al. 2000) and entrepreneurship is a planned behaviour (Katz & Gartner 1988), models of entrepreneurial intentions have substantial implications for intentionality research in entrepreneurship. The purpose of this paper is to explore the emerging practice of social entrepreneurship by comparing the determinants of entrepreneurial intention in general versus those leading to startups with a social mission. Social entrepreneurial intentions clearly merit to be investigated given that the opportunity identification process is an intentional process not only typical of for profit start-ups, and yet there is a lack of research examining opportunity recognition in social entrepreneurship (Haugh 2005). The key argument is that intentionality in both traditional and social entrepreneurs during the decision-making process of new venture creation is influenced by an individual's perceptions toward opportunities (Fishbein & Ajzen 1975). Besides opportunity recognition, at least two other aspects can substantially influence intentionality: human and social capital (Davidsson, 2003). This paper is set to establish if and to what extent the social intentions of potential entrepreneurs, at the cognitive level, are influenced by opportunities recognition, human capital, and social capital. By applying established theoretical constructs, the paper draws comparisons between ‘for-profit’ and ‘social’ intentionality using two samples of students enrolled in Economy and Business Administration at the University G. d’Annunzio in Pescara, Italy. A questionnaire was submitted to 310 potential entrepreneurs to test the robustness of the model. The collected data were used to measure the theoretical constructs of the paper. Reliability of the multi-item scale for each dimension was measured using Cronbach alpha, and for all the dimensions measures of reliability are above 0.70. We empirically tested the model using structural equation modeling with AMOS. The results allow us to empirically contribute to the argument regarding the influence of human and social cognitive capital on social and non-social entrepreneurial intentions. Moreover, we highlight the importance for further researchers to look deeper into the determinants of traditional and social entrepreneurial intention so that governments can one day define better polices and regulations that promote sustainable businesses with a social imprint, rather than inhibit their formation and growth.

Human factors at the interface between road and rail systems

Railway level crossings present an arguably unique interface between two transport systems that differ markedly in their performance characteristics, their degrees of regulation and their safety cultures. Railway level crossings also differ dramatically in the importance they represent as safety issues for the two modes. For rail, they are the location of a large proportion of fatalities within the system and are therefore the focus of much safety concern. For the road system, they comprise only a few percent of all fatalities, although the potential for catastrophic outcomes exist. Rail operators and regulators have traditionally required technologies to be failsafe and to demonstrate high levels of reliability. The resultant level of complexity and cost has both limited their extent of application and led to a need to better understand how motorists comprehend and respond to these systems.

Human rights and environmental wrongs : achieving environmental justice through human rights law

The numerous interconnections between the environment and human rights are well established internationally. It is understood that environmental issues such as pollution, deforestation or the misuse of resources can impact on individuals’ and communities’enjoyment of fundamental rights, including the right to health, the right to an adequate standard of living, the right to self‐determination and the right to life itself. These are rights which are guaranteed under international human rights law and in relation to which governments bear certain responsibilities. Further, environmental issues can also impact on governments’ capacity to protect and fulfil the rights of their citizens. In this way human rights and environmental protection can be constructed as being mutually supportive. In addition to these links between the environment and human rights, human rights principles arguably offer a framework for identifying and addressing environmental injustice. The justice implications of environmental problems are well documented and there are many examples where pollution, deforestation or other degradation disproportionately impact upon poorer neighbourhoods or areas populated by minority groups. On the international level, environmental injustice exists between developed and developing States, as well as between present and future generations who will inherit the environmental problems we are creating today. This paper investigates the role of human rights principles, laws and mechanisms in addressing these instances of environmental injustice and argues that the framework of human rights norms provides an approach to environmental governance which can help to minimise injustice and promote the interests of those groups which are most adversely affected. Further, it suggests that the human rights enforcement mechanisms which exist at international law could be utilised to lend weight to claims for more equitable environmental policies.

Preface to special issue on digital human modelling for vehicle design and manufacturing

The automotive industry has been the focus of digital human modeling (DHM) research and application for many years. In the highly competitive marketplace for personal transportation, the desire to improve the customer’s experience has driven extensive research in both the physical and cognitive interaction between the vehicle and its occupants. Human models provide vehicle designers with tools to view and analyze product interactions before the first prototypes are built, potentially improving the design while reducing cost and development time. The focus of DHM research and applications began with prediction and representation of static postures for purposes of driver workstation layout, including assessments of seat adjustment ranges and exterior vision. Now DHMs are used for seat design and assessment of driver reach and ingress/egress. DHMs and related simulation tools are expanding into the cognitive domain, with computational models of perception and motion, and into the dynamic domain with models of physical responses to ride and vibration. Moreover, DHMs are now widely used to analyze the ergonomics of vehicle assembly tasks. In this case, the analysis aims to determine whether workers can be expected to complete the tasks safely and with good quality. This preface provides a review of the literature to provide context for the nine new papers presented in this special issue.

Human Kallikrein 4 signal peptide induces cytotoxic T cell responses in healthy donors and prostate cancer patients.

Immunotherapy is a promising new treatment for patients with advanced prostate and ovarian cancer, but its application is limited by the lack of suitable target antigens that are recognized by CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL). Human kallikrein 4 (KLK4) is a member of the kallikrein family of serine proteases that is significantly overexpressed in malignant versus healthy prostate and ovarian tissue, making it an attractive target for immunotherapy. We identified a naturally processed, HLA-A*0201-restricted peptide epitope within the signal sequence region of KLK4 that induced CTL responses in vitro in most healthy donors and prostate cancer patients tested. These CTL lysed HLA-A*0201+ KLK4 + cell lines and KLK4 mRNA-transfected monocyte-derived dendritic cells. CTL specific for the HLA-A*0201-restricted KLK4 peptide were more readily expanded to a higher frequency in vitro compared to the known HLA-A*0201-restricted epitopes from prostate cancer antigens; prostate-specific antigen (PSA), prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) and prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP). These data demonstrate that KLK4 is an immunogenic molecule capable of inducing CTL responses and identify it as an attractive target for prostate and ovarian cancer immunotherapy.

Next-generation sequencing of cervical DNA detects human papillomavirus types not detected by commercial kits

Background Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the aetiological agent for cervical cancer and genital warts. Concurrent HPV and HIV infection in the South African population is high. HIV positive (+) women are often infected with multiple, rare and undetermined HPV types. Data on HPV incidence and genotype distribution are based on commercial HPV detection kits, but these kits may not detect all HPV types in HIV + women. The objectives of this study were to (i) identify the HPV types not detected by commercial genotyping kits present in a cervical specimen from an HIV positive South African woman using next generation sequencing, and (ii) determine if these types were prevalent in a cohort of HIV-infected South African women. Methods Total DNA was isolated from 109 cervical specimens from South African HIV + women. A specimen within this cohort representing a complex multiple HPV infection, with 12 HPV genotypes detected by the Roche Linear Array HPV genotyping (LA) kit, was selected for next generation sequencing analysis. All HPV types present in this cervical specimen were identified by Illumina sequencing of the extracted DNA following rolling circle amplification. The prevalence of the HPV types identified by sequencing, but not included in the Roche LA, was then determined in the 109 HIV positive South African women by type-specific PCR. Results Illumina sequencing identified a total of 16 HPV genotypes in the selected specimen, with four genotypes (HPV-30, 74, 86 and 90) not included in the commercial kit. The prevalence's of HPV-30, 74, 86 and 90 in 109 HIV positive South African women were found to be 14.6 %, 12.8 %, 4.6 % and 8.3 % respectively. Conclusions Our results indicate that there are HPV types, with substantial prevalence, in HIV positive women not being detected in molecular epidemiology studies using commercial kits. The significance of these types in relation to cervical disease remains to be investigated.

Optimization of human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) L1 expression in plants: Comparison of the suitability of different HPV-16 L1 gene variants and different cell-compartment localization

Virus-like particle-based vaccines for high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPVs) appear to have great promise; however, cell culture-derived vaccines will probably be very expensive. The optimization of expression of different codon-optimized versions of the HPV-16 L1 capsid protein gene in plants has been explored by means of transient expression from a novel suite of Agrobacterium tumefaciens binary expression vectors, which allow targeting of recombinant protein to the cytoplasm, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or chloroplasts. A gene resynthesized to reflect human codon usage expresses better than the native gene, which expresses better than a plant-optimized gene. Moreover, chloroplast localization allows significantly higher levels of accumulation of L1 protein than does cytoplasmic localization, whilst ER retention was least successful. High levels of L1 (>17% total soluble protein) could be produced via transient expression: the protein assembled into higher-order structures visible by electron microscopy, and a concentrated extract was highly immunogenic in mice after subcutaneous injection and elicited high-titre neutralizing antibodies. Transgenic tobacco plants expressing a human codon-optimized gene linked to a chloroplast-targeting signal expressed L1 at levels up to 11% of the total soluble protein. These are the highest levels of HPV L1 expression reported for plants: these results, and the excellent immunogenicity of the product, significantly improve the prospects of making a conventional HPV vaccine by this means. © 2007 SGM.

Transient expression of Human papillomavirus type 16 L1 protein in Nicotiana benthamiana using an infectious tobamovirus vector

A Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)-derived vector was used to express a native Human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV-16) L1 gene in Nicotiana benthamiana by means of infectious in vitro RNA transcripts inoculated onto N. benthamiana plants. HPV-16 L1 protein expression was quantitated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) after concentration of the plant extract. We estimated that the L1 product yield was 20-37 μg/kg of fresh leaf material. The L1 protein in the concentrated extract was antigenically characterised using the neutralising and conformation-specific Mabs H16:V5 and H16:E70, which bound to the plant-produced protein. Particles observed by transmission electron microscopy were mainly capsomers but virus-like particles (VLPs) similar to those produced in other systems were also present. Immunisation of rabbits with the concentrated plant extract induced a weak immune response. This is the first report of the successful expression of an HPV L1 gene in plants using a plant virus vector. © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 subtype C Gag virus-like particle boost substantially improves the immune response to a subtype C gag DNA vaccine in mice

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) subtype C is the predominant HIV in southern Africa, and is the target of a number of recent vaccine candidates. It has been proposed that a heterologous prime/boost vaccination strategy may result in stronger, broader and more prolonged immune responses. Since HIV-1 Gag Pr55 polyprotein can assemble into virus-like particles (VLPs) which have been shown to induce a strong cellular immune response in animals, we showed that a typical southern African subtype C Pr55 protein expressed in insect cells via recombinant baculovirus could form VLPs. We then used the baculovirus-produced VLPs as a boost to a subtype C HIV-1 gag DNA prime vaccination in mice. This study shows that a low dose of HIV-1 subtype C Gag VLPs can significantly boost the immune response to a single subtype C gag DNA inoculation in mice. These results suggest a possible vaccination regimen for humans. © 2004 SGM.

Comparison of cervical and blood T-cell responses to human papillomavirus-16 in women with human papillomavirus-associated cervical intraepithelial neoplasia

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are obligate epithelial pathogens and typically cause localized mucosal infections. We therefore hypothesized that T-cell responses to HPV antigens would be greater at sites of pathology than in the blood. Focusing on HPV-16 because of its association with cervical cancer, the magnitude of HPV-specific T-cell responses at the cervix was compared with those in the peripheral blood by intracellular cytokine staining following direct ex vivo stimulation with both virus-like particles assembled from the major capsid protein L1, and the major HPV oncoprotein, E7. We show that both CD4 + and CD8 + T cells from the cervix responded to the HPV-16 antigens and that interferon-γ (IFN-γ) production was HPV type-specific. Comparing HPV-specific T-cell IFN-γ responses at the cervix with those in the blood, we found that while CD4 + and CD8 + T-cell responses to L1 were significantly correlated between compartments (P = 0.02 and P = 0.05, respectively), IFN-γ responses in both T-cell subsets were significantly greater in magnitude at the cervix than in peripheral blood (P = 0.02 and P = 0.003, respectively). In contrast, both CD4 + and CD8 + T-cell IFN-γ responses to E7 were of similar magnitude in both compartments and CD8 + responses were significantly correlated between these distinct immunological compartments (P = 0.04). We therefore show that inflammatory T-cell responses against L1 (but not E7) demonstrate clear compartmental bias and the magnitude of these responses do reflect local viral replication but that correlation of HPV-specific responses between compartments indicates their linkage.

Strategies for the prevention of cervical cancer by human papillomavirus vaccination

As cervical cancer is causally associated with 14 high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV), a successful HPV vaccine will have a major impact on this disease. Although some persistent HPV infections progress to cervical cancer, host immunity is generally able to clear most HPV infections. Both cell-mediated and antibody responses have been implicated in influencing the susceptibility, persistence or clearance of genital HPV infection. There have been two clinical trials that show that vaccines based on virus-like particles (VLPs) made from the major capsid protein, L1, are able to type specifically protect against cervical intra-epithelial neoplasia and infection. However, there is no evidence that even a mixed VLP vaccine will protect against types not included in the vaccine, and a major challenge that remains is how to engineer protection across a broader spectrum of viruses. Strategies for production of HPV vaccines using different vaccine vectors and different production systems are also reviewed. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.