Regulation of membrane trafficking and organ separation by the NEVERSHED ARF-GAP protein.

Cell separation, or abscission, is a highly specialized process in plants that facilitates remodeling of their architecture and reproductive success. Because few genes are known to be essential for organ abscission, we conducted a screen for mutations that alter floral organ shedding in Arabidopsis. Nine recessive mutations that block shedding were found to disrupt the function of an ADP-ribosylation factor-GTPase-activating protein (ARF-GAP) we have named NEVERSHED (NEV). As predicted by its homology to the yeast Age2 ARF-GAP and transcriptional profile, NEV influences other aspects of plant development, including fruit growth. Co-localization experiments carried out with NEV-specific antiserum and a set of plant endomembrane markers revealed that NEV localizes to the trans-Golgi network and endosomes in Arabidopsis root epidermal cells. Interestingly, transmission electron micrographs of abscission zone regions from wild-type and nev flowers reveal defects in the structure of the Golgi apparatus and extensive accumulation of vesicles adjacent to the cell walls. Our results suggest that NEV ARF-GAP activity at the trans-Golgi network and distinct endosomal compartments is required for the proper trafficking of cargo molecules required for cell separation.

A new species of Henneguya, a gill parasite of Astyanax altiparanae (Pisces: Characidae) from Brazil, with comments on histopathology and seasonality

A new species of Myxosporea, Henneguya chydadea, is described parasitizing the gills of Astyanax altiparanae collected from a lake on Rio das Pedras farm near Campinas, state of São Paulo, Brazil. Of the fish examined, 88.3% had gills parasitized by myxosporeans. The prevalence of the parasite ranged from 80% in the spring and fall, 93% in the summer and 100% in the winter. The parasite induced the formation of white, oval-shaped cysts measuring 40-64 µm x 64-80 µm which deformed the gill lamellae, compressed the capillaries, and caused retraction of the neighboring lamellae. The mature spores were elongated and had two identical, parallel elongate polar capsules. Each capsule contained a polar filament with 9-10 turns. There was no mucous envelope or iodinophilous vacuole. Morphometric differences between this parasite and other species of the genus Henneguya indicated, that he parasite observed in A. altiparanae is a new species. This is the first report of a myxosporeanparasitizing A. altiparanae.

Microfluidic processor allows rapid HER2 immunohistochemistry of breast carcinomas and significantly reduces ambiguous (2+) read-outs.

Biomarker analysis is playing an essential role in cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and prediction. Quantitative assessment of immunohistochemical biomarker expression on tumor tissues is of clinical relevance when deciding targeted treatments for cancer patients. Here, we report a microfluidic tissue processor that permits accurate quantification of the expression of biomarkers on tissue sections, enabled by the ultra-rapid and uniform fluidic exchange of the device. An important clinical biomarker for invasive breast cancer is human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 [(HER2), also known as neu], a transmembrane tyrosine kinase that connotes adverse prognostic information for the patients concerned and serves as a target for personalized treatment using the humanized antibody trastuzumab. Unfortunately, when using state-of-the-art methods, the intensity of an immunohistochemical signal is not proportional to the extent of biomarker expression, causing ambiguous outcomes. Using our device, we performed tests on 76 invasive breast carcinoma cases expressing various levels of HER2. We eliminated more than 90% of the ambiguous results (n = 27), correctly assigning cases to the amplification status as assessed by in situ hybridization controls, whereas the concordance for HER2-negative (n = 31) and -positive (n = 18) cases was 100%. Our results demonstrate the clinical potential of microfluidics for accurate biomarker expression analysis. We anticipate our technique will be a diagnostic tool that will provide better and more reliable data, onto which future treatment regimes can be based.

Protein kinase C-activating tumor promoters enhance the differentiation of astrocytes in aggregating fetal brain cell cultures.

Serum-free aggregating cell cultures of fetal rat telencephalon treated with the potent tumor promoter phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) showed a marked, rapid, and sustained increase in the activity of the astrocyte-specific enzyme glutamine synthetase (GS). This effect was accompanied by a small increase in RNA synthesis and a progressive reduction in DNA synthesis. Only mitotically active cultures were responsive to PMA treatments. Since in aggregate cultures astrocytes are the preponderant cell type, both in number and mitotic activity, it can be concluded that PMA induces and/or enhances the terminal differentiation of astrocytes. The developmental expression of GS was also greatly stimulated by mezerein, a potent nonphorbol tumor promoter, but not by 4 alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate, a nonpromoting phorbol ester. Since both tumor promoters, PMA and mezerein, are potent and specific activators of C-kinase, it is suggested that C-kinase plays a regulatory role in the growth and differentiation of normal astrocytes.

Myxobolus insignis sp. n. (Myxozoa, Myxosporea, Myxobolidae), a parasite of the Amazonian teleost fish Semaprochilodus insignis (Osteichthyes, Prochilodontidae)

A new myxosporean species is described from the fish Semaprochilodus insignis captured from the Amazon River, near Manaus. Myxobolus insignis sp. n. was located in the gills of the host forming plasmodia inside the secondary gill lamellae. The spores had a thick wall (1.5-2 µm) all around their body, and the valves were symmetrical and smooth. The spores were a little longer than wide, with rounded extremities, in frontal view, and oval in lateral view. They were 14.5 (14-15) µm long by 11.3 (11-12) µm wide and 7.8 (7-8) µm thick. Some spores showed the presence of a triangular thickening of the internal face of the wall near the posterior end of the polar capsules. This thickening could occur in one of the sides of the spore or in both sides. The polar capsules were large and equal in size surpassing the midlength of the spore. They were oval with the posterior extremity rounded, and converging anteriorly with tapered ends. They were 7.6 (7-8) µm long by 4.2 (3-5) µm wide, and the polar filament formed 6 coils slightly obliquely to the axis of the polar capsule. An intercapsular appendix was present. There was no mucous envelope or distinct iodinophilous vacuole.

Characterization of root apoplastic barriers in Arabidopsis thaliana

In vascular plants, the best-known feature of a differentiated endodermal cell is the "Casparian Strip" (CS). This structure refers to a highly localized cell wall impregnation in the transversal and anticlinal walls of the cell, which surrounds the cell like a belt/ring and is tightly coordinated with respect to neighboring cells. Analogous to tight junctions in animal epithelia, CS in plants act as a diffusion barrier that controls the movement of water and ions from soil into the stele. Since its first description by Robert Caspary in 1865 there have been many attempts to identify the chemical nature of the cell wall deposition in CS. Suberin, lignin, or both have been claimed to be the important components of CS in a series of different species. However, the exact chemical composition of CS has remained enigmatic. This controversy was due to the confusion and lack of knowledge regarding the precise measurement of three developmental stages of the endodermis. The CS represent only the primary stage of endodermal differentiation, which is followed by the deposition of suberin lamellae all around the cellular surface of endodermal cells (secondary developmental stage). Therefore, chemical analysis of whole roots, or even of isolated endodermal tissues, will always find both of the polymers present. It was crucial to clarify this point because this will guide our efforts to understand which cell wall biosynthetic component becomes localized in order to form the CS. The main aim of my work was to find out the major components of (early) CS, as well as their spatial and temporal development, physiological roles and relationship to barrier formation. Employing the knowledge and tools that have been accumulated over the last few years in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, various histological and chemical assays were used in this study. A particular feature of my work was to completely degrade, or inhibit formation of lignin and suberin biopolymers by biochemical, classical genetic and molecular approaches and to investigate its effect on CS formation and the establishment of a functional diffusion barrier. Strikingly, interference with monolignol biosynthesis abrogates CS formation and delays the formation of function diffusion barrier. In contrast, transgenic plants devoid of any detectable suberin still develop a functional CS. The combination of all these assays clearly demonstrates that the early CS polymer is made from monolignol (lignin monomers) and is composed of lignin. By contrast, suberin is formed much later as a secondary wall during development of endodermis. These early CS are functionally sufficient to block extracellular diffusion and suberin does not play important role in the establishment of early endodermal diffusion barrier. Moreover, suberin biosynthetic machinery is not present at the time of CS formation. Our study finally concludes the long-standing debate about the chemical nature of CS and opens the door to a new approach in lignin research, specifically for the identification of the components of the CS biosynthetic pathway that mediates the localized deposition of cell walls. I also made some efforts to understand the patterning and differentiation of endodermal passage cells in young roots. In the literature, passage cells are defined as a non- suberized xylem pole associated endodermal cells. Since these cells only contain the CS but not the suberin lamellae, it has been assumed that these cells may offer a continued low-resistance pathway for water and minerals into the stele. Thus far, no genes have been found to be expressed specifically in passage cells. In order to understand the patterning, differentiation, and physiological role of passage it would be crucial to identify some genes that are exclusively expressed in these cells. In order to identify such genes, I first generated fluorescent marker lines of stele-expressed transporters that have been reported to be expressed in the passage cells. My aim was to first highlight the passage cells in a non-specific way. In order to find passage cell specific genes I then adapted a two-component system based on previously published methods for gene expression profiling of individual cell types. This approach will allow us to target only the passage cells and then to study gene expression specifically in this cell type. Taken together, this preparatory work will provide an entry point to understand the formation and role of endodermal passage cells. - Chez les plantes vasculaires, la caractéristique la plus commune des cellules différentiées de l'endoderme est la présence de cadres de Caspary. Cette structure correspond à une imprégnation localisée des parties transversales et anticlinales de la paroi cellulaire. Cela donne naissance, autour de la cellule, à un anneau/cadre qui est coordonné par rapport aux cellules voisines. De manière analogue aux jonctions serrées des épithéliums chez les animaux, les cadres de Caspary agissent chez les plantes comme barrière de diffusion, contrôlant le mouvement de l'eau et des ions à travers la racine entre le sol et la stèle. Depuis leur première description par Robert Caspary en 1865, beaucoup de tentatives ont eu pour but de définir la nature chimique de ces cadres de Caspary. Après l'étude de différentes espèces végétales, à la fois la subérine, la lignine ou les deux ont été revendiquées comme étant des composants importants de ces cadres. Malgré tout, leur nature chimique exacte est restée longtemps énigmatique. Cette controverse provient de la confusion et du manque de connaissance concernant la détermination précise des trois stades de développement de l'endoderme. Les cadres de Caspary représentent uniquement le stade primaire de différentiation de l'endoderme. Celui-ci est suivi par le second stade de différentiation, la déposition de lamelles de subérine tout autour de la cellule endodermal. De ce fait, l'analyse chimique de racines entières ou de cellules d'endoderme isolées ne permet pas de séparer les stades de différentiation primaire et secondaire et aboutit donc à la présence des deux polymères. Il est également crucial de clarifier ce point dans le but de connaître quelle machinerie cellulaire localisée à la paroi cellulaire permet l'élaboration des cadres de Caspary. En utilisant les connaissances et les outils accumulés récemment grâce à la plante modèle Arabidopsis thaliana, divers techniques histologiques et chimiques ont été utilisées dans cette étude. Un point particulier de mon travail a été de dégrader ou d'inhiber complètement la formation de lignine ou de subérine en utilisant des approches de génétique classique ou moléculaire. Le but étant d'observer l'effet de l'absence d'un de ces deux polymères sur la formation des cadres de Caspary et l'établissement d'une barrière de diffusion fonctionnelle. De manière frappante, le fait d'interférer avec la voie de biosynthèse de monolignol (monomères de lignine) abolit la formation des cadres de Caspary et retarde l'élaboration d'une barrière de diffusion fonctionnelle. Par contre, des plantes transgéniques dépourvues d'une quantité détectable de subérine sont quant à elles toujours capables de développer des cadres de Caspary fonctionnels. Mises en commun, ces expériences démontrent que le polymère formant les cadres de Caspary dans la partie jeune de la racine est fait de monolignol, et que de ce fait il s'agit de lignine. La subérine, quant à elle, est formée bien plus tard durant le développement de l'endoderme, de plus il s'agit d'une modification de la paroi secondaire. Ces cadres de Caspary précoces faits de lignine suffisent donc à bloquer la diffusion extracellulaire, contrairement à la subérine. De plus, la machinerie de biosynthèse de la subérine n'est pas encore présente au moment de la formation des cadres de Caspary. Notre étude permet donc de mettre un terme au long débat concernant la nature chimique des cadres de Caspary. De plus, elle ouvre la porte à de nouvelles approches dans la recherche sur la lignine, plus particulièrement pour identifier des composants permettant la déposition localisée de ce polymère dans la paroi cellulaire. J'ai aussi fais des efforts pour mettre en évidence la formation ainsi que le rôle des cellules de passage dans les jeunes racines. Dans la littérature, les cellules de passage sont définies comme de la cellule endodermal faisant face aux pôles xylèmes et dont la paroi n'est pas subérisée. Du fait que ces cellules contiennent uniquement des cadres de Caspary et pas de lamelle de subérine, il a été supposé qu'elles ne devraient offrir que peu de résistance au passage de l'eau et des nutriments entre le sol et la stèle. Le rôle de ces cellules de passage est toujours loin d'être clair, de plus aucun gène s'exprimant spécifiquement dans ces cellules n'a été découvert à ce jour. De manière à identifier de tels gènes, j'ai tout d'abord généré des marqueurs fluorescents pour des transporteurs exprimés dans la stèle mais dont l'expression avait également été signalée dans l'endoderme, uniquement dans les cellules de passage. J'ai ensuite développé un système à deux composants basé sur des méthodes déjà publiées, visant principalement à étudier le profil d'expression génique dans un type cellulaire donné. En recoupant les gènes exprimés spécifiquement dans l'endoderme à ceux exprimés dans la stèle et les cellules de passage, il nous sera possible d'identifier le transriptome spécifique de ces cellules. Pris dans leur ensemble, ces résultats devraient donner un bon point d'entrée dans la définition et la compréhension des cellules de passage.

'Good-genes' and 'compatible-genes' effects in an Alpine whitefish and the information content of breeding tubercles over the course of the spawning season.

Some models of sexual selection predict that individuals vary in their genetic quality and reveal some of this variation in their secondary sexual characteristics. Alpine whitefish (Coregonus sp.) develop breeding tubercles shortly before their spawning season. These tubercles are epidermal structures that are distributed regularly along the body sides of both males and females. There is still much unexplained variation in the size of breeding tubercles within both sexes and with much overlap between the sexes. It has been suggested that breeding tubercles function to maintain body contact between the mating partners during spawning, act as weapons for defence of spawning territories, or are sexual signals that reveal aspects of genetic quality. We took two samples of whitefish from their spawning place, one at the beginning and one around the peak of spawning season. We found that females have on average smaller breeding tubercles than males, and that tubercle size partly reveals the stage of gonad maturation. Two independent full-factorial breeding experiments revealed that embryo mortality was significantly influenced by male and female effects. This finding demonstrates that the males differed in their genetic quality (because offspring get nothing but genes from their fathers). Tubercle size was negatively linked to some aspects of embryo mortality in the first breeding experiment but not significantly so in the second. This lack of consistency adds to inconsistent results that were reported before and suggests that (i) some aspects of genetic quality are not revealed in breeding tubercles while others are, or (ii) individuals vary in their signaling strategies and the information content of breeding tubercles is not always reliable. Moreover, the fact that female whitefish have breeding tubercles of significant size while males seem to have few reasons to be choosy suggests that the tubercles might also serve some functions that are not linked to sexual signaling.

Multiple nodules of the scrotum: histopathological findings and surgical procedure. A study of five cases.

BACKGROUND: Multiple nodules of the scrotum are uncommonly reported. Their origin is controversial. Treatment is always surgical but the best procedure is still to be determined. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Five new cases are reported with description of the histopathological findings and surgical procedure. RESULTS: Nodules of the scrotum were more frequent in patients with dark skin suggesting an ethnic susceptibility. No other predisposing factors were noted. Screening for disturbances of phosphate or calcium balance was negative. The following histopathological findings were observed: non-calcified epidermoid cysts (3 patients), calcified epidermoid cysts (1 patient) and nodular calcifications without epithelial or glandular structures (1 patient). Subtotal excisions of the scrotum wall using tumescent anaesthesia were performed in all patients without any significant complications. Cosmetic results were excellent. No new lesions were observed during the 1-year follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Most cases of multiple nodules of the scrotum are due to non-calcified epidermoid cysts. The term scrotal calcinosis is therefore probably abusively used by many authors. Some cases of nodular calcifications may be due to dystrophic calcification of epidermoid cysts, but calcifications may also occur without any visible epithelial or glandular structure. Subtotal excision of the scrotum wall is a safe and effective surgical procedure to treat multiple nodules of the scrotum. Cosmetic results are excellent and recurrences are rare.

Paleogenetic and taphonomic analysis of human bones from Moa, Beirada, and Zé Espinho Sambaquis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The present paper discusses mtDNA and taphonomy of human remains from Moa, Beirada, and Zé Espinho sambaquis of Saquarema, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. New human bone dating by 14C-AMS for Moa archeological site (3810+50 BP - GX-31826-AMS) is included. Preservation of microscopic lamellae and DNA is not related to the macroscopic integrity of the bones. Results here suggest that the preservation of amplifiable DNA fragments may have relation to the preservation of the lamellar arrangement as indicated by optical microscopic examination (polarized light). In 13 human bone fragments from Moa, Beirada, and Zé Espinho it was possible to sequence mtDNA from the 3 individuals of Moa, and from 1 of 4 individuals of Beirada, whose bones also show extensive areas with preserved lamellar structures. The 6 human bone fragments of Zé Espinho and 3 of the 4 fragments of Beirada showed extensive destruction of cortical microstructure represented by cavities, intrusive minerals, and agglomerated microscopic bodies of fungi and bacteria; it was not possible to extract mtDNA from these samples. The results support the hypothesis that the preservation of the microscopic osteon organization is a good predictor for DNA preservation. It was also confirmed the C haplogroup antiquity in Brazil.

Myelin gene expression during demyelination and remyelination in aggregating brain cell cultures.

Remyelination can be studied in aggregating rat brain cell cultures after limited demyelination. Demyelination was induced using a monoclonal antibody against myelin/oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG mAb), in the presence of complement. De- and remyelination were assessed by measuring myelin basic protein (MBP). Two days after removing the MOG mAb, MBP levels reached 50% of controls and after 7 days 93%. During this period, cell proliferation determined by [14C]thymidine incorporation was similar in remyelinating and control cultures. Hormones and growth factors were tested for possible stimulatory effect on remyelinating cultures. Bovine growth hormone (bGH), triiodothyronine (T3), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) did not improve remyelination. Only epidermal growth factor (EGF) increased the level of remyelination. PDGF increased the rate of cell proliferation in both control and remyelinating cultures. A significant proportion of oligodendrocytes entered the cell division cycle and were not available for remyelination. The results obtained with PDGF and FGF (inhibition) support the idea that a pool of progenitor cells was still present and able to proliferate and differentiate into myelinating oligodendrocytes. The levels of myelin protein mRNAs were investigated during de- and remyelination. During demyelination, myelin protein mRNA levels decreased to approximately 50% of control cultures and returned to normal during remyelination. These preliminary results indicate that normal levels of gene transcription are sufficient to meet the increased need for newly synthesized myelin proteins during remyelination.

Pathway analysis of glioblastoma tissue after preoperative treatment with the EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib--a phase II trial.

Amplification of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) gene is one of the most common oncogenic alterations in glioblastoma (45%) making it a prime target for therapy. However, small molecule inhibitors of the EGFR tyrosine kinase showed disappointing efficacy in clinical trials for glioblastoma. Here we aimed at investigating the molecular effects of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib on the EGFR signaling pathway in human glioblastoma. Twenty-two patients selected for reoperation of recurrent glioblastoma were treated within a phase II trial for 5 days with 500 mg gefitinib before surgery followed by postoperative gefitinib until recurrence. Resected glioblastoma tissues exhibited high concentrations of gefitinib (median, 4.1 μg/g), 20 times higher than respective plasma. EGFR-pathway activity was evaluated with phosphorylation-specific assays. The EGFR was efficiently dephosphorylated in treated patients as compared to a control cohort of 12 patients. However, no significant effect on 12 pathway constituents was detected. In contrast, in vitro treatment of a glioblastoma cell line, BS-153, with endogenous EGFRwt amplification and EGFRvIII expression resulted not only in dephosphorylation of the EGFR, but also of key regulators in the pathway such as AKT. Treating established xenografts of the same cell line as an in vivo model showed dephosphorylation of the EGFR without affecting downstream signal transductors, similar to the human glioblastoma. Taken together, gefitinib reaches high concentrations in the tumor tissue and efficiently dephosphorylates its target. However, regulation of downstream signal transducers in the EGFR pathway seems to be dominated by regulatory circuits independent of EGFR phosphorylation.

INK4a/Arf is required for suppression of EGFR/DeltaEGFR(2-7)-dependent ERK activation in mouse astrocytes and glioma.

Amplification of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) or expression of its constitutively activated mutant, DeltaEGFR(2-7), in association with the inactivation of the INK4a/Arf gene locus is a frequent alteration in human glioblastoma. The notion of a cooperative effect between these two alterations has been demonstrated in respective mouse brain tumor models including our own. Here, we investigated underlying molecular mechanisms in early passage cortical astrocytes deficient for p16(INK4a)/p19(Arf) or p53, respectively, with or without ectopic expression of DeltaEGFR(2-7). Targeting these cells with the specific EGFR inhibitor tyrphostin AG1478 revealed that phosphorylation of ERK was only abrogated in the presence of an intact INK4a/Arf gene locus. The sensitivity to inhibit ERK phosphorylation was independent of ectopic expression of DeltaEGFR(2-7) and independent of the TP53 status. This resistance to downregulate the MAPK pathway in the absence of INK4a/Arf was confirmed in cell lines derived from our mouse glioma models with the respective initial genetic alterations. Thus, deletion of INK4a/Arf appears to keep ERK in its active, phosphorylated state insensitive to an upstream inhibitor specifically targeting EGFR/DeltaEGFR(2-7). This resistance may contribute to the cooperative tumorigenic effect selected for in human glioblastoma that may be of crucial clinical relevance for treatments specifically targeting EGFR/DeltaEGFR(2-7) in glioblastoma patients.

Combined cetuximab and trastuzumab are superior to gemcitabine in the treatment of human pancreatic carcinoma xenografts.

BACKGROUND: Pancreatic carcinoma remains a treatment-refractory cancer with a poor prognosis. Here, we compared anti-epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and anti-HER2 monoclonal antibodies (2mAbs) injections with standard gemcitabine treatment on human pancreatic carcinoma xenografts. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nude mice, bearing human pancreatic carcinoma xenografts, were treated with either combined anti-EGFR (cetuximab) and anti-HER2 (trastuzumab) or gemcitabine, and tumor growth was observed. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: In first-line therapy, mice survival was significantly longer in the 2mAbs group compared with gemcitabine (P < 0.0001 for BxPC-3, P = 0.0679 for MiaPaCa-2 and P = 0.0019 for Capan-1) and with controls (P < 0.0001). In second-line therapy, tumor regressions were observed after replacing gemcitabine by 2mAbs treatment, resulting in significantly longer animal survival compared with mice receiving continuous gemcitabine injections (P = 0.008 for BxPC-3, P = 0.05 for MiaPaCa-2 and P < 0.001 for Capan-1). Therapeutic benefit of 2mAbs was observed despite K-Ras mutation. Interestingly, concerning the mechanism of action, coinjection of F(ab')(2) fragments from 2mAbs induced significant tumor growth inhibition, compared with controls (P = 0.001), indicating that the 2mAbs had an Fc fragment-independent direct action on tumor cells. This preclinical study demonstrated a significant improvement of survival and tumor regression in mice treated with anti-EGFR/anti-HER2 2mAbs in first- and second-line treatments, compared with gemcitabine, independently of the K-Ras status.

Clinical pharmacogenomic testing of KRAS, BRAF and EGFR mutations by high resolution melting analysis and ultra-deep pyrosequencing

BACKGROUND: Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and its downstream factors KRAS and BRAF are mutated in several types of cancer, affecting the clinical response to EGFR inhibitors. Mutations in the EGFR kinase domain predict sensitivity to the tyrosine kinase inhibitors gefitinib and erlotinib in lung adenocarcinoma, while activating point mutations in KRAS and BRAF confer resistance to the anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody cetuximab in colorectal cancer. The development of new generation methods for systematic mutation screening of these genes will allow more appropriate therapeutic choices. METHODS: We describe a high resolution melting (HRM) assay for mutation detection in EGFR exons 19-21, KRAS codon 12/13 and BRAF V600 using formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded samples. Somatic variation of KRAS exon 2 was also analysed by massively parallel pyrosequencing of amplicons with the GS Junior 454 platform. RESULTS: We tested 120 routine diagnostic specimens from patients with colorectal or lung cancer. Mutations in KRAS, BRAF and EGFR were observed in 41.9%, 13.0% and 11.1% of the overall samples, respectively, being mutually exclusive. For KRAS, six types of substitutions were detected (17 G12D, 9 G13D, 7 G12C, 2 G12A, 2 G12V, 2 G12S), while V600E accounted for all the BRAF activating mutations. Regarding EGFR, two cases showed exon 19 deletions (delE746-A750 and delE746-T751insA) and another two substitutions in exon 21 (one showed L858R with the resistance mutation T590M in exon 20, and the other had P848L mutation). Consistent with earlier reports, our results show that KRAS and BRAF mutation frequencies in colorectal cancer were 44.3% and 13.0%, respectively, while EGFR mutations were detected in 11.1% of the lung cancer specimens. Ultra-deep amplicon pyrosequencing successfully validated the HRM results and allowed detection and quantitation of KRAS somatic mutations. CONCLUSIONS: HRM is a rapid and sensitive method for moderate-throughput cost-effective screening of oncogene mutations in clinical samples. Rather than Sanger sequence validation, next-generation sequencing technology results in more accurate quantitative results in somatic variation and can be achieved at a higher throughput scale.

Giant proliferating trichilemmal malignant tumor

Proliferating trichilemmal cyst is a benign tumor that originates in the outer root sheath of hair follicle. Usually, it is located on the scalp in older women, but also have been reported in other sites such as back, chest, axilla, groin, gluteal region, thigh, vulva, and face. Malignant transformation of proliferating trichilemmal cyst is confirmed only on histological findings. This tumor has a variable biologic behavior with local recurrence and lymph node metastasis.