Substrate-selective repair and restart of replication forks by DNA translocases

Stalled replication forks are sources of genetic instability. Multiple fork-remodeling enzymes are recruited to stalled forks, but how they work to promote fork restart is poorly understood. By combining ensemble biochemical assays and single-molecule studies with magnetic tweezers, we show that SMARCAL1 branch migration and DNA-annealing activities are directed by the single-stranded DNA-binding protein RPA to selectively regress stalled replication forks caused by blockage to the leading-strand polymerase and to restore normal replication forks with a lagging-strand gap. We unveil the molecular mechanisms by which RPA enforces SMARCAL1 substrate preference. E. coli RecG acts similarly to SMARCAL1 in the presence of E. coli SSB, whereas the highly related human protein ZRANB3 has different substrate preferences. Our findings identify the important substrates of SMARCAL1 in fork repair, suggest that RecG and SMARCAL1 are functional orthologs, and provide a comprehensive model of fork repair by these DNA translocases.

Cooperation of breast cancer proteins PALB2 and piccolo BRCA2 in stimulating homologous recombination.

Inherited mutations in human PALB2 are associated with a predisposition to breast and pancreatic cancers. PALB2's tumor-suppressing effect is thought to be based on its ability to facilitate BRCA2's function in homologous recombination. However, the biochemical properties of PALB2 are unknown. Here we show that human PALB2 binds DNA, preferentially D-loop structures, and directly interacts with the RAD51 recombinase to stimulate strand invasion, a vital step of homologous recombination. This stimulation occurs through reinforcing biochemical mechanisms, as PALB2 alleviates inhibition by RPA and stabilizes the RAD51 filament. Moreover, PALB2 can function synergistically with a BRCA2 chimera (termed piccolo, or piBRCA2) to further promote strand invasion. Finally, we show that PALB2-deficient cells are sensitive to PARP inhibitors. Our studies provide the first biochemical insights into PALB2's function with piBRCA2 as a mediator of homologous recombination in DNA double-strand break repair.

The role of MAR elements in DNA recombination

The untargeted integration of foreign DNA into the mammalian cell genome, extensively used in gene therapy and biotechnology, remains an incompletely understood process. It is believed to be based on cellular DNA double strand break (DSB) repair machinery and to involve two major steps: i) the formation of long gene arrays (concatemers), and ii) recombination of the resulting concatemer with the genome. The main DSB repair pathways in eukaryotes include non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ), homologous recombination (HR), and microhomology-mediated end-joining (MMEJ). However, it is still not clear, which of these pathways are responsible for transgene integration. Here, we show that NHEJ is not the primary pathway used by mammalian cells in the transgene integration process, while the components of the HR pathway seem to be important for genomic integration but not concatemerization. Instead, concatemer formation appears to be mediated by a subset of the MMEJ pathway, termed synthesis-dependent MMEJ (SD-MMEJ). This mechanism also seems to be preferentially used for plasmid integration into the genome, as confirmed by the analysis of plasmid-to-genome junction sequences, which were found to display an SD-MMEJ pattern. Therefore, we propose the existence of two distinct SD-MMEJ subpathways, relying on different subsets of enzymes. One of these mechanisms appears to be responsible for concatemerization, while the other mechanism, partially dependent in HR enzymes, seems to mediate recombination with the genome. Previous studies performed by our group suggested that matrix attachment regions (MARs), which are epigenetic regulatory DNA elements that participate in the formation of chromatin boundaries and augment transcription, may mediate increased plasmid integration into the genome of CHO cells by stimulating DNA recombination. In the present work, we demonstrate that MAR-mediated plasmid integration results from the enhanced SD-MMEJ pathway. Analysis of transgene integration loci and junction DNA sequences validated the prevalent use of this pathway by the MAR elements to target plasmid DNA into gene-rich areas of the CHO genome. We propose that this finding should in the future help to engineer cells for improved recombinant protein production. In addition to investigating the process of transgene integration, we designed recombination assays to better characterize the components of the MMEJ and SD-MMEJ pathways. We also used CHO cells expressing cycle-sensitive reporter genes to demonstrate a potential role of HR proteins in the cell cycle regulation.

Fragmentation of contaminant and endogenous DNA in ancient samples determined by shotgun sequencing; prospects for human palaeogenomics

Despite the successful retrieval of genomes from past remains, the prospects for human palaeogenomics remain unclear because of the difficulty of distinguishing contaminant from endogenous DNA sequences. Previous sequence data generated on high-throughput sequencing platforms indicate that fragmentation of ancient DNA sequences is a characteristic trait primarily arising due to depurination processes that create abasic sites leading to DNA breaks.

Câncer e agentes antineoplásicos ciclo-celular específicos e ciclo-celular não específicos que interagem com o DNA: uma introdução

The chemotherapy agents against cancer may be classified as "cell cycle-specific" or "cell cycle-nonspecific". Nevertheless, several of them have their biological activity related to any kind of action on DNA such as: antimetabolic agents (DNA synthesis inhibition), inherently reactive agents (DNA alkylating electrophilic traps for macromolecular nucleophiles from DNA through inter-strand cross-linking - ISC - alkylation) and intercalating agents (drug-DNA interactions inherent to the binding made due to the agent penetration in to the minor groove of the double helix). The earliest and perhaps most extensively studied and most heavily employed clinical anticancer agents in use today are the DNA inter-strand cross-linking agents.

Microphotometric scanning of chromatid gaps and breaks induced by AluI and BamHI in Chinese hamster ovary cells

Chromatid gaps and breaks induced by the restriction endonucleases AluI and BamHI in the long arm of chromosome 1 of Chinese hamster ovary cells were microphotometrically scanned and mapped to a quantitative G-band map. More than 50% of chromatid breaks appeared as chromatin losses of greater than 5% of the total arm length. The majority of chromatid gaps and breaks as well as chromatin losses induced by both restriction endonucleases were non-randomly located in a region from 0.35 to 0.65 relative length units of the long arm of chromosome 1. We suggest that the access of these endonucleases to chromosomal DNA depends on the local organization of the chromatin.

Detection of point mutations by non-isotopic single strand conformation polymorphism

We have developed a procedure for nonradioactive single strand conformation polymorphism analysis and applied it to the detection of point mutations in the human tumor suppressor gene p53. The protocol does not require any particular facilities or equipment, such as radioactive handling, large gel units for sequencing, or a semiautomated electrophoresis system. This technique consists of amplification of DNA fragments by PCR with specific oligonucleotide primers, denaturation, and electrophoresis on small neutral polyacrylamide gels, followed by silver staining. The sensitivity of this procedure is comparable to other described techniques and the method is easy to perform and applicable to a variety of tissue specimens.

Screening for mutations in human alpha-globin genes by nonradioactive single-strand conformation polymorphism

Point mutations and small insertions or deletions in the human alpha-globin genes may produce alpha-chain structural variants and alpha-thalassemia. Mutations can be detected either by direct DNA sequencing or by screening methods, which select the mutated exon for sequencing. Although small (about 1 kb, 3 exons and 2 introns), the alpha-globin genes are duplicate (alpha2 and alpha1) and highy G-C rich, which makes them difficult to denature, reducing sequencing efficiency and causing frequent artifacts. We modified some conditions for PCR and electrophoresis in order to detect mutations in these genes employing nonradioactive single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP). Primers previously described by other authors for radioactive SSCP and phast-SSCP plus denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis were here combined and the resultant fragments (6 new besides 6 original per alpha-gene) submitted to silver staining SSCP. Nine structural and one thalassemic mutations were tested, under different conditions including two electrophoretic apparatus (PhastSystem™ and GenePhor™, Amersham Biosciences), different polyacrylamide gel concentrations, run temperatures and denaturing agents, and entire and restriction enzyme cut fragments. One hundred percent of sensitivity was achieved with four of the new fragments formed, using the PhastSystem™ and 20% gels at 15ºC, without the need of restriction enzymes. This nonradioactive PCR-SSCP approach showed to be simple, rapid and sensitive, reducing the costs involved in frequent sequencing repetitions and increasing the reliability of the results. It can be especially useful for laboratories which do not have an automated sequencer.

Genetic studies on the role of type IA DNA topoisomerases in DNA metabolism and genome maintenance in Escherichia coli

Le surenroulement de l’ADN est important pour tous les processus cellulaires qui requièrent la séparation des brins de l’ADN. Il est régulé par l’activité enzymatique des topoisomérases. La gyrase (gyrA et gyrB) utilise l’ATP pour introduire des supertours négatifs dans l’ADN, alors que la topoisomérase I (topA) et la topoisomérase IV (parC et parE) les éliminent. Les cellules déficientes pour la topoisomérase I sont viables si elles ont des mutations compensatoires dans un des gènes codant pour une sous-unité de la gyrase. Ces mutations réduisent le niveau de surenroulement négatif du chromosome et permettent la croissance bactérienne. Une de ces mutations engendre la production d'une gyrase thermosensible. L’activité de surenroulement de la gyrase en absence de la topoisomérase I cause l’accumulation d’ADN hyper-surenroulé négativement à cause de la formation de R-loops. La surproduction de la RNase HI (rnhA), une enzyme qui dégrade l’ARN des R-loops, permet de prévenir l’accumulation d’un excès de surenroulement négatif. En absence de RNase HI, des R-loops sont aussi formés et peuvent être utilisés pour déclencher la réplication de l’ADN indépendamment du système normal oriC/DnaA, un phénomène connu sous le nom de « constitutive stable DNA replication » (cSDR). Pour mieux comprendre le lien entre la formation de R-loops et l’excès de surenroulement négatif, nous avons construit un mutant conditionnel topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) avec l’expression inductible de la RNase HI à partir d’un plasmide. Nous avons trouvé que l’ADN des cellules de ce mutant était excessivement relâché au lieu d'être hypersurenroulé négativement en conditions de pénurie de RNase HI. La relaxation de l’ADN a été montrée comme étant indépendante de l'activité de la topoisomérase IV. Les cellules du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) forment de très longs filaments remplis d’ADN, montrant ainsi un défaut de ségrégation des chromosomes. La surproduction de la topoisomérase III (topB), une enzyme qui peut effectuer la décaténation de l’ADN, a corrigé les problèmes de ségrégation sans toutefois restaurer le niveau de surenroulement de l’ADN. Nous avons constaté que des extraits protéiques du mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) pouvaient inhiber l’activité de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase dans des extraits d’une souche sauvage, suggérant ainsi que la pénurie de RNase HI avait déclenché une réponse cellulaire d’inhibition de cette activité de la gyrase. De plus, des expériences in vivo et in vitro ont montré qu’en absence de RNase HI, l’activité ATP-dépendante de surenroulement négatif de la gyrase était inhibée, alors que l’activité ATP-indépendante de cette enzyme demeurait intacte. Des suppresseurs extragéniques du défaut de croissance du triple mutant topA rnhA gyrB(Ts) qui corrigent également les problèmes de surenroulement et de ségrégation des chromosomes ont pour la plupart été cartographiés dans des gènes impliqués dans la réplication de l’ADN, le métabolisme des R-loops, ou la formation de fimbriae. La deuxième partie de ce projet avait pour but de comprendre les rôles des topoisomérases de type IA (topoisomérase I et topoisomérase III) dans la ségrégation et la stabilité du génome de Escherichia coli. Pour étudier ces rôles, nous avons utilisé des approches de génétique combinées avec la cytométrie en flux, l’analyse de type Western blot et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que le phénotype Par- et les défauts de ségrégation des chromosomes d’un mutant gyrB(Ts) avaient été corrigés en inactivant topA, mais uniquement en présence du gène topB. En outre, nous avons démontré que la surproduction de la topoisomérase III pouvait corriger le phénotype Par- du mutant gyrB(Ts) sans toutefois corriger les défauts de croissance de ce dernier. La surproduction de topoisomérase IV, enzyme responsable de la décaténation des chromosomes chez E. coli, ne pouvait pas remplacer la topoisomérase III. Nos résultats suggèrent que les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle important dans la ségrégation des chromosomes lorsque la gyrase est inefficace. Pour étudier le rôle des topoisomérases de type IA dans la stabilité du génome, la troisième partie du projet, nous avons utilisé des approches génétiques combinées avec des tests de « spot » et la microscopie. Nous avons constaté que les cellules déficientes en topoisomérase I avaient des défauts de ségrégation de chromosomes et de croissance liés à un excès de surenroulement négatif, et que ces défauts pouvaient être corrigés en inactivant recQ, recA ou par la surproduction de la topoisomérase III. Le suppresseur extragénique oriC15::aph isolé dans la première partie du projet pouvait également corriger ces problèmes. Les cellules déficientes en topoisomérases de type IA formaient des très longs filaments remplis d’ADN d’apparence diffuse et réparti inégalement dans la cellule. Ces phénotypes pouvaient être partiellement corrigés par la surproduction de la RNase HI ou en inactivant recA, ou encore par des suppresseurs isolés dans la première partie du projet et impliques dans le cSDR (dnaT18::aph et rne59::aph). Donc, dans E. coli, les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle dans la stabilité du génome en inhibant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et de R-loops, et en empêchant les défauts de ségrégation liés à la recombinaison RecA-dépendante, par leur action avec RecQ. Les travaux rapportés ici révèlent que la réplication inappropriée et dérégulée est une source majeure de l’instabilité génomique. Empêcher la réplication inappropriée permet la ségrégation des chromosomes et le maintien d’un génome stable. La RNase HI et les topoisomérases de type IA jouent un rôle majeur dans la prévention de la réplication inappropriée. La RNase HI réalise cette tâche en modulant l’activité de surenroulement ATP-dependante de la gyrase, et en empêchant la réplication à partir des R-loops. Les topoisomérases de type IA assurent le maintien de la stabilité du génome en empêchant la réplication inappropriée à partir de oriC et des R-loops et en agissant avec RecQ pour résoudre des intermédiaires de recombinaison RecA-dépendants afin de permettre la ségrégation des chromosomes.

Repair of abasic sites in DNA

Repair of both normal and reduced AP sites is activated by AP endonuclease, which recognizes and cleaves a phosphodiester bond 5' to the AP site. For a short period of time an incised AP site is occupied by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase and then DNA polymerase beta adds one nucleotide into the repair gap and simultaneously removes the 5'-sugar phosphate. Finally, the DNA ligase III/XRCC1 complex accomplishes repair by sealing disrupted DNA ends. However, long-patch BER pathway, which is involved in the removal of reduced abasic sites, requires further DNA synthesis resulting in strand displacement and the generation of a damage-containing flap that is later removed by the flap endonuclease. Strand-displacement DNA synthesis is accomplished by DNA polymerase delta/epsilon and DNA ligase I restores DNA integrity. DNA synthesis by DNA polymerase delta/epsilon is dependent on proliferating cell nuclear antigen, which also stimulates the DNA ligase I and flap endonuclease. These repair events are supported by multiple protein-protein interactions. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Guanine specific binding at a DNA junction formed by d[CG(5-BrU)ACG]2 with a topoisomerase poison in the presence of Co2+Ions†,‡

The structure of the duplex d[CG(5-BrU)ACG]2 bound to 9-bromophenazine-4-carboxamide has been solved through MAD phasing at 2.0 Å resolution. It shows an unexpected and previously unreported intercalation cavity stabilized by the drug and novel binding modes of Co2+ ions at certain guanine N7 sites. For the intercalation cavity the terminal cytosine is rotated to pair with the guanine of a symmetry-related duplex to create a pseudo-Holliday junction geometry, with two such cavities linked through the minor groove interactions of the N2/N3 guanine sites at an angle of 40°, creating a quadruplex-like structure. The mode of binding of the drug is shown to be disordered, with the major conformations showing the side chain bound to the N7 position of adjacent guanines. The other end of the duplex exhibits a terminal base fraying in the presence of Co2+ ions linking symmetry-related guanines, causing the helices to intertwine through the minor groove. The stabilization of the structure by the intercalating drug shows that this class of compound may bind to DNA junctions as well as duplex DNA or to strand-nicked DNA (‘hemi-intercalated'), as in the cleavable complex. This suggests a structural basis for the dual poisoning of topoisomerase I and II enzymes by this family of drugs.

Determination by MAD-DM of the structure of the DNA duplex d[ACGTACG(5-BrU)]2 at 1.46 Å and 100 K

A four-wavelength MAD experiment on a new brominated octanucleotide is reported here. d[ACGTACG(5-BrU)], C77H81BrN30O32P7, (DNA) = 2235, tetragonal, P43212 (No. 96), a = 43.597, c = 26.268 Å, V = 49927.5 Å3, Z = 8, T = 100 K, R = 10.91% for 4312 reflections between 15.0 and 1.46 Å resolution. The self-complementary brominated octanucleotide d[ACGTACG(5-BrU)]2 has been crystallized and data measured to 1.45 Å at both 293 K and a second crystal flash frozen at 100 K. The latter data collection was carried out to the same resolution at the four wavelengths 0.9344, 0.9216, 0.9208 and 0.9003 Å, around the Br K edge at 0.92 Å and the structure determined from a map derived from a MAD data analysis using pseudo-MIR methodology, as implemented in the program MLPHARE. This is one of the first successful MAD phasing experiments carried out at Sincrotrone Elettra in Trieste, Italy. The structure was refined using the data measured at 0.9003 Å, anisotropic temperature factors and the restrained least-squares refinement implemented in the program SHELX96, and the helical parameters are compared with those previously determined for the isomorphous d(ACGTACGT)2 analogue. The asymmetric unit consists of a single strand of octamer with 96 water molecules. No countercations were located. The A-DNA helix geometry obtained has been analysed using the CURVES program.

Structure of the DNA octanucleotide d(ACGTACGT)2

d(ACGTACGT), C78H84N30O32P7.20H2O, Mr (DNA) = 2170, tetragonal, P43212 (No 96), a = 42.845 (1), b = 42.845(1), c = 24.804 (1) Å, V = 45532.5 (2) Å3, z = 8,(MoK) = 0.71069 Å,µ(MoK) = 0.10 mm-1, T = 295 K, R = 0.18 for 1994 unique reflections between 5.0 and 1.9 Å resolution. The self-complementary octanucleotide d(ACGTACGT)2 has been crystallized and its structure determined to a resolution of 1.9 Å. The asymmetric unit consists of a single strand of octamer with 20 water molecules. It is only the second example of an octanucleotide having terminal A·T base pairs whose structure has been determined by X-ray crystallography. The sequence adopts the modified A-type conformation found for all octanucleotide duplexes studied to date with the helix bent by approximately 15° and an average tilt angle of 0°. Unusually the data collection was carried out using a 3 kW molybdenum sealed-tube source. The conformational details are discussed in comparison with other closely related sequences.

Discerning the conformation of G-quadruplex forming DNA

Terahertz power transmission spectroscopy (TPTS) measurements have been carried out to detect a difference between the hydration shells of G-quadruplex forming DNA sequences in strand and quadruplex configuration. Evidence of a change in hydration shell was observed.

DNA damage induced by the anthracycline cosmomycin D in DNA repair-deficient cells

Anthracyclines have been widely used as antitumor agents, playing a crucial role in the successful treatment of many types of cancer, despite some side effects related to cardiotoxicity. New anthracyclines have been designed and tested, but the first ones discovered, doxorubicin and daunorubicin, continue to be the drugs of choice. Despite their extensive use in chemotherapy, little is known about the DNA repair mechanisms involved in the removal of lesions caused by anthracyclines. The anthracycline cosmomycin D is the main product isolated from Streptomyces olindensis, characterized by a peculiar pattern of glycosylation with two trisaccharide rings attached to the A ring of the tetrahydrotetracene. We assessed the induction of apoptosis (Sub-G(1)) by cosmomycin D in nucleotide excision repair-deficient fibroblasts (XP-A and XP-C) as well as the levels of DNA damage (alkaline comet assay). Treatment of XP-A and XP-C cells with cosmomycin D resulted in apoptosis in a time-dependent manner, with highest apoptosis levels observed 96 h after treatment. The effects of cosmomycin D were equivalent to those obtained with doxorubicin. The broad caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK strongly inhibited apoptosis in these cells, and DNA damage induced by cosmomycin D was confirmed by alkaline comet assay. Cosmomycin D induced time-dependent apoptosis in nucleotide excision repair-deficient fibroblasts. Despite similar apoptosis levels, cosmomycin D caused considerably lower levels of DNA damage compared to doxorubicin. This may be related to differences in structure between cosmomycin D and doxorubicin.