Foreign Policy as Ethics: Toward a Re-Evaluation of Values

This article notes that while ethics is increasingly talked of in foreign policy, it remains a blind-spot for FPA. It argues that this must be rectified through a critical approach which conceptualises foreign policy as ethics. The first section examines how even constructivist approaches, which are highly attuned to the intersubjective sphere, still generally avoid dealing with morality. The second section looks at the possibilities and limits of one piece of constructivist theorizing that explores the translation of morality into foreign policy via ‘norms’. This demonstrates the problems that a constructivist account, with its tendency toward explanatory description without evaluation, will always face. The final section argues, through an examination of EU foreign policy (from 1999-2004) and its innovative use of ‘hospitality’, that FPA must critically reassess the value of the norms and principles by which foreign policy operates in order to suggest potentially more ethical modes of encounter.

Ethics, power and space: International hospitality beyond Derrida

This article argues for the importance of hospitality in discussions of international ethics, suggesting that, while Jacques Derrida’s thought on the concept ought to be central, we also need to go beyond it. In particular, Derrida’s focus on the threshold moment of sovereign decision has the effect of reinforcing International Relations’ focus on the state as the only ethical actor and space. In contrast, this article suggests that we think of hospitality as a spatial relation with affective dimensions and a practice that continues once the guest crosses the threshold of the home. Conceived as such, hospitality reveals a constitutive relation between ethics, power and space, which directs us to the way hospitality produces international spaces and manages them through various tactics seeking to contain the resistant guest. This argument is illustrated through an examination of perhaps the most urgent of contemporary international ethical spaces: the refugee camp.

The Dark Side of Nudging: The Ethics, Political Economy, and Law of Libertarian Paternalism

Libertarian paternalism, as advanced by Cass Sunstein, is seriously flawed, but not primarily for the reasons that most commentators suggest. Libertarian paternalism and its attendant regulatory implications are too libertarian, not too paternalistic, and as a result are in considerable tension with ‘thick’ conceptions of human dignity. We make four arguments. The first is that there is no justification for a presumption in favor of nudging as a default regulatory strategy, as Sunstein asserts. It is ordinarily less effective than mandates; such mandates rarely offend personal autonomy; and the central reliance on cognitive failures in the nudging program is more likely to offend human dignity than the mandates it seeks to replace. Secondly, we argue that nudging as a regulatory strategy fits both overtly and covertly, often insidiously, into a more general libertarian program of political economy. Thirdly, while we are on the whole more concerned to reject the libertarian than the paternalistic elements of this philosophy, Sunstein’s work, both in Why Nudge?, and earlier, fails to appreciate how nudging may be manipulative if not designed with more care than he acknowledges. Lastly, because of these characteristics, nudging might even be subject to legal challenges that would give us the worst of all possible regulatory worlds: a weak regulatory intervention that is liable to be challenged in the courts by well-resourced interest groups. In such a scenario, and contrary to the ‘common sense’ ethos contended for in Why Nudge?, nudges might not even clear the excessively low bar of doing something rather than nothing. Those seeking to pursue progressive politics, under law, should reject nudging in favor of regulation that is more congruent with principles of legality, more transparent, more effective, more democratic, and allows us more fully to act as moral agents. Such a system may have a place for (some) nudging, but not one that departs significantly from how labeling, warnings and the like already function, and nothing that compares with Sunstein’s apparent ambitions for his new movement.

Impact of Referral Protocols on the Dental Management of Patients Undergoing Treatment for Head and Neck Oncology in Northern Ireland

Objective: To evaluate the handling, by a group of practice-based researchers, of a recently introduced bulk fill resin-based composite restorative material, Filtek Bulk Fill Restorative (3M ESPE).

Methods: The twelve selected evaluators were sent explanatory letters, a pack of the material under investigation to use for 8 weeks, and a questionnaire.

Results: The evaluators rated the ease of use of the bulk fill restorative the same as the previously used posterior composite material. The provision of one shade only for evaluation may have compromised the score for aesthetic quality. No post-operative sensitivity was reported.

Conclusions: The bulk fill material was well received as indicated by the high number of evaluators who would both purchase the material and recommend it to colleagues.

Clinical relevance: A recently introduced bulk fill restorative material achieved a rating for handling which was similar to the evaluators’ previously used resin composite, although there were some concerns regarding the translucency of the material.

NPY Y1 and VPAC1 receptor expression in human dental pulps

Neuropeptides such as neuropeptide Y (NPY) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) have been shown by our research group to be present in human dental pulp tissue. Neuropeptides cannot cross cell membranes and therefore to exert their biological effects they must bind to selected receptors on the surface of target cell membranes. However, the expression of receptor proteins for NPY and/or VIP have yet to be reported in human pulp tissue. The presence of neuropeptide receptors can be conveniently determined by Western blotting using specific anti-receptor antibodies. Objectives: The aim of this work was to identify the presence of the NPY Y1 receptor and the VIP receptor VPAC1 in human dental pulp tissue from both intact and carious teeth using Western blotting. Methods: Pulp tissue was collected from both intact and carious teeth and membrane preparations from these tissues were then subject to sodium dodecyl sulphate gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), transferred to nitrocellulose and probed with specific antibodies to either the NPY Y1 receptor or the VPAC1 receptor. Results: Individual Western blotting experiments revealed the presence of immunoreactive bands corresponding to the known molecular weights of the NPY Y1 and VPAC1 receptor proteins in both intact and carious pulp samples. Conclusions: Demonstration of the presence of NPY Y1 and VPAC1 receptor protein expression in pulpal tissue from intact and carious teeth provides further support for the roles of these neuropeptides in pulpal health and disease.

TRP Channels and calcium signalling in dental pulp stem cells

Introduction: Ca2+ ion is an important intracellular messenger essential for the regulation of various cellular functions including proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels are calcium permeable cationic channels that play important role in regulation of free intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) in response to thermal, physical and chemical stimuli. Ca2+ signalling in human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) and the ion channels regulating Ca2+ are largely not known. Objectives: Investigate changes in [Ca2+]i and determine the ion channels that regulate calcium signalling in hDPSCs. Methods: DPSCs were derived from immature third molars and cells less than passage 6 were used in all the experiments. Changes in [Ca2+]i were studied with Fura2 calcium imaging. RNA was extracted from DPSCs and a panel of TRP channel gene expression was determined by qPCR employing custom designed FAM TRP specific primers and probes (Roche, UK) and the Light Cycler 480 Probes Master (Roche). Results: hDPSCs express gene transcripts for all TRP families including TRPV1, V2, V4, TRPA1, TRPC3, TRPC5, TRPC6, TRPM3, TRPM7 and TRPP2. Stimulation of cells with appropriate TRP channel agonist induced increase in [Ca2+]i and similar responses were obtained when cell were mechanically stimulated by membrane stretch with application of hypotonic solution. Conclusion: TRP channels mediate calcium signalling in hDPSCs that merit further investigation.

Osteoprotegerin Expression in the Dental Pulp

Objectives: The inflammatory response to pulpal injury or infection has major clinical significance. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) is a soluble decoy receptor for Receptor Activator of NF kappa B Ligand (RANKL), preventing ligand binding to its receptor (RANK), thus inhibiting clastic cell formation. The aim of the study is to investigate the expression of OPG in human dental pulp and the effects of inflammatory mediators. This study will specifically investigate the effects of Transforming Growth Factor Beta-1 (TGF-β1) and Interleukin 1-Beta (IL-1β) on the expression of OPG on pulp fibroblasts in vitro. Method: Five primary pulp fibroblast populations were obtained by explant culture of healthy pulp tissue. Triplicate cultures were grown to confluence in 12-well plates and stimulated for 48 hours with IL-1β (10ng/ml) or TGF-β1 (10ng/ml). The conditioned media was collected and OPG levels detected by ELISA (R+D Systems, UK). Results: All fibroblast populations produced quantifiable levels of OPG in a time-dependant fashion. IL-1β significantly increased the expression of OPG (p<0.05) in all cultures. In contrast, TGF-β1 had no significant effect on OPG expression levels. In addition, previous work in our laboratory demonstrated both TGF-β1 and IL-1β stimulated OPG expression by periodontal ligament fibroblasts. Conclusion: These data indicate that IL-1β-regulated expression of OPG by pulpal fibroblasts may mediate hard tissue turnover in the inflamed dental pulp.

Substance P production by human dental pulp fibroblasts

The inflammatory response to pulpal injury or infection has major clinical significance. Neurogenic inflammation describes the local release of neuropeptides, notably substance P (SP), from afferent neurones, and may play a role in the pathogenesis of pulpal disease. The fibroblast is the most numerous cell type in the dental pulp and recent work has suggested that it is involved in the inflammatory response. Objectives: The aims of the study were to determine whether pulp fibroblasts could produce SP, and to investigate the expression of the SP receptor, NK-1, by these cells. Methods: Primary pulp fibroblast cell populations were isolated by enzymatic digestion from non-carious teeth extracted for orthodontic reasons. Whole pulp tissue was obtained from freshly extracted sound (n=35) and carious (n=39) teeth. Expression of SP and NK-1 mRNA was determined by RT-PCR. The effects of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) on SP and NK-1 expression were also determined. The presence of NK-1 on fibroblast cell membranes was established by western blotting. The effects of the cytokines on each parameter were analysed by ANOVA. Radioimmunoassay (RIA) was carried out to quantify SP expression by pulp fibroblasts and in whole pulp tissue. Results: SP was expressed by pulpal fibroblasts both at the mRNA level and the protein level. In addition, NK-1 was detected in fibroblast cultures at the mRNA level and appeared as a double band on western blots of membrane extracts. IL-1β and TGF-β1 significantly stimulated the expression of SP and NK-1. SP levels were significantly greater (p<0.05) in carious compared to sound teeth. Conclusion: Pulp fibroblasts are capable of synthesising and secreting SP, as well as expressing the SP receptor, NK-1. These findings suggest that pulp fibroblasts play a role in neurogenic inflammation in pulpal disease. (Supported by the European Society of Endodontology.)

Co-expression of NPY and VIP in human dental pulp

Introduction: The regulation of pulpal haemodynamics in health and disease involves sympathetic and parasympathetic mechanisms in which both neuropeptide Y (NPY; a sympathetic vasoconstrictor) and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP; a parasympathetic vasodilator) may play potential pathophysiological roles. We have previously investigated the levels of NPY or VIP present in human dental pulp tissue and shown that their expression is up-regulated in caries induced pulpal inflammation. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the potential correlation between NPY and VIP levels measured in the same dental pulp samples using radioimmunoassay (RIA). Methods: Pulp tissue was obtained from extracted teeth, classified as follows; healthy (n=22), moderately carious (n=20) and grossly carious (n=26). Samples were processed for RIA by boiling in acetic acid as previously described. The levels of NPY and VIP, measured by RIA, were expressed as ng/gram of pulp tissue. The nature of the relationship between NPY and VIP levels in human pulp tissue was tested by calculating Pearson's product moment correlation coefficient using the linear regression test. Results: Calculation of Pearson product moment correlation coefficient showed a significant negative correlation between NPY and VIP levels in pulp tissue samples from non-carious teeth (p = 0.02, r = -.48). This negative correlation in non-carious teeth changed to a significant positive correlation in carious teeth when the levels of NPY and VIP were compared (p = 0.03, r= 0.311). Conclusions: In non-carious teeth, the negative correlation between NPY and VIP levels is in keeping with the previously described modulatory influence of cholinergic nerves on sympathetic function which may be perturbed as caries develops.

Vasoactive Intestinal Polypeptide (VIP) in Human Dental Pulps

Pulpal innervation is not exclusively sensory and there are potential roles for other neuropeptides such as vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP) in pulpal health and disease. In the systemic circulation VIP relaxes vascular smooth muscles leading to vasodilatation. It has been shown that VIP fibres are associated with pulpal blood vessels and therefore VIP may mediate vasoactivity in the dental pulp. A growing body of evidence has now demonstrated that an additional major physiological role of VIP is to act as a survival factor. In order to gain a better understanding of the role of neuropeptides in the caries process it is of interest to specifically examine a role for VIP. Objectives: The aim of the present study was to determine the levels of VIP in carious (moderately carious and grossly carious) compared with non-carious teeth. Methods: A total of 68 teeth were included in the study (22 non-carious, 20 moderately carious and 26 grossly carious). VIP was measured in all samples using a sensitive and specific radioimmunoassay. Results: The mean concentration of VIP in the pulps of non-carious teeth was 7.69 ng/g (9.41 SD) compared to 14.93 ng/g (15.58 SD) in carious teeth. Pair-wise comparisons of VIP levels using Tukey’s test showed statistically significant differences in VIP expression between non-carious and moderately carious teeth (p=0.002) and between moderately and grossly carious teeth, (p=0.002). Conclusion: The significantly increased levels of VIP in moderately carious pulps compared with either non-carious or grossly carious pulps may suggest a role for VIP as a protective or survival factor.

Radioimmunoassay Quantitation of Neuropeptide Y (NPY) in Human Dental Pulps

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a 36 amino acid peptide that is abundantly expressed in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. NPY has previously been shown to be present in human dental pulp although its exact role in pulpal health and disease remains to be fully elucidated. In addition to serving a neurotransmitter role, NPY may also have a role in modulating the pulpal response to injury and inflammation. Indeed NPY is known to be a potent vasoconstrictor in a range of tissues. Recent work by our research group has demonstrated changes in sensory neuropeptide levels measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) in healthy and carious teeth. In addition to elevated levels of sensory neuropeptides, it is also possible that the carious process is associated with increased levels of autonomic neuropeptides such as NPY. Objectives: The aim of the present study was to undertake a comprehensive quantitative RIA analysis of NPY expression in human dental pulps from carious and non-carious teeth. Methods: A total of 22 non-carious and 46 carious teeth were included in the study. NPY was measured in all samples using RIA. Briefly, the RIA system consisted of a total volume of 400 ul, comprising 100 ul anti-NPY antibody (Peninsula Laboratories), 200 ul human NPY synthetic standard or pulp sample, and 100 ul of 125I-labelled NPY as radioactive tracer. Results: The mean concentration of NPY in non-carious teeth was found to be 4.28 ng/g (4.34 SD) compared to 9.57 ng/g (9.39 SD) in carious teeth. Using ANOVA the difference in NPY levels between the non-carious group and the carious group was found to be statistically significant (p= 0.003). Conclusion: The significant increase in the levels of NPY in carious dental pulps reported in this study provides evidence for a role for NPY in the pulpal response to caries.

Neuropeptide Receptors in the Dental Pulp

Objectives: The inflammatory response to pulpal injury or infection has major clinical significance. The aim of the study is to investigate the presence and regulation of expression of neuropeptide receptors on human pulp fibroblasts and whole pulp tissue. This study will investigate the expression of Substance P (NK-1) and Neuropeptide Y (NPY-Y1) receptors on pulp fibroblasts, determine the effects of Transforming Growth Factor Beta-1 (TGF-b1) and Interleukin 1-Beta (IL-1b) on the expression of NK-1 and NPY-Y1 receptors on pulp fibroblasts and examine the levels of receptor expression in whole pulp samples. Methods: Primary pulp fibroblast cell lines were obtained from patients undergoing extractions for orthodontic reasons. The cells were grown to confluence and stimulated for 5 days with IL-1b or TGF-b1. Pulp tissue fragments were obtained from freshly extracted sound and carious teeth, snap frozen in liquid nitrogen and cracked open using a vice. The monolayer was removed with cell scrapers and pelleted. The cell membranes of the cultured cells and the whole tissue were isolated using a Mem-PER® Eukaryotic Membrane Protein Extraction Reagent Kit (Pierce, UK). The membrane proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE and Western blotting was used to detect the presence of NK-1 and NPY-Y1. Results: Initial results demonstrated the presence of NK-1 and NPY-Y1 in cultured pulp fibroblasts. Following the 5 day incubation with TGF-b1, the cells appeared not to express NK-1. IL-1b had a slight stimulatory effect on NK-1 expression. The NPY-Y1 expression was not affected by either TGF-b1 or IL-1b. In whole pulp samples, levels of NK-1 were increased in carious teeth compared to caries-free teeth. The NPY-Y1 levels were similar in carious and non-carious teeth. Conclusion: These findings give an insight into how pulp cells react to inflammatory stimuli with regards to neuropeptide receptor expression and their roles in health and disease

Ethics in sexual behavior assessment and support for people with intellectual disability

Sexuality is an issue of equality, rights, and ethics, especially when it comes to the sexuality of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. This paper offers a discussion of ethics related to the assessment and intervention supports of sexual behavior in people with intellectual and developmental disabilities. A brief history of sexuality and disability is presented. Issues of sexual abuse of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities and the laws related to sterilization, pornography, sexual rights, and consent are explored. Finally, specific ethical concerns related to intervention by behavior analysts in the realm of sexual behavior are examined.

The ethics of ethical debates in peace and conflict research: Notes towards the development of a research covenant

This article outlines the case for peace and conflict researchers to formulate a research covenant to better shape their ethical obligations and responsibilities. This is an urgent necessity given that ethical debates have in some proponents become emotive and are not conducted in an ethical manner. In coming to this assessment, the article reviews trends in the research ethics literature and draws out some of the generic issues addressed in a review of the personal reflexivity that an assortment of individual peace and conflict researchers have engaged in when recounting their fieldwork experiences. These generic issues are reformulated in an attempt to codify appropriate ethical practice in peace and conflict research, and they go towards determining the contents of the research covenant. It is suggested that the research covenant is a more ethical way to debate the ethics of peace and conflict research.