The biology and ecology of the invasive Indo-Pacific lionfish

The Indo-Pacific lionfishes, Pterois miles and P. volitans, are now established along the Southeast U.S. and Caribbean and are expected to expand into the Gulf of Mexico and Central and South America. Prior to this invasion little was known regarding the biology and ecology of these lionfishes. I provide a synopsis of chronology, taxonomy, local abundance, reproduction, early life history and dispersal, venomology, feeding ecology, parasitology, potential impacts, and possible control and management strategies for the lionfish invasion. This information was collected by review of the literature and by direct field and experimental study. I confirm the existence of an unusual supraocular tentacle phenotype and suggest that the high prevalence of this phenotype in the Atlantic is not the result of selection, but likely ontogenetic change. To describe the trophic impacts of lionfish, I report a comprehensive assessment of diet that describes lionfish as a generalist piscivore that preys on over 40 species of teleost comprising more than 20 families. Next, I use the histology of gonads to describe both oogenesis and reproductive dynamics of lionfish. Lionfish mature relatively early and reproduce several times per month throughout the entire calendar year off North Carolina and the Bahamas. To investigate predation, an important component of natural mortality, I assessed the vulnerability of juvenile lionfish to predation by native serranids. Juvenile lionfish are not readily consumed by serranids, even after extreme periods of starvation. Last, I used a stage-based, matrix population model to estimate the scale of control that would be needed to reduce an invading population of lionfish. Together, this research provides the first comprehensive assessment on lionfish biology and ecology and explains a number of life history and ecological interactions that have facilitated the unprecedented and rapid establishment of this invasive finfish. Future research is needed to understand the scale of impacts that lionfish could cause, especially in coral reef ecosystems, which are already heavily stressed. This research further demonstrates the need for lionfish control strategies and more rigorous prevention and early detection and rapid response programs for marine non-native introductions.

St. John, USVI mission report, NOAA/NOS/NCCOS/CCMA/Biogeography Branch, July 6 - July 17, 2009

The intent of this field mission was to continue ongoing efforts: (1) to spatially characterize and monitor the distribution, abundance and size of reef fishes, and the abundance of macroinvertebrates (conch, Diatema, lobster) within and around the waters of the Virgin Islands National Park (VIIS) and newly established Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument (VICR), (2) to correlate this information to in-situ data collected on associated habitat parameters, (3) to use this information to establish the knowledge base necessary for enacting management decisions in a spatial setting and (4) to establish the efficacy of those management decisions. An additional focus this year, was to evaluate a new habitat data collection method for RHA sites (MSR and some Coral Bay sites). There are concerns that the cylinder habitat data are not reflective of the fish transect habitat. To address this, we collected habitat data at 5x4 m increments along the transect in addition to data collected using the cylinder method. We are currently assessing the potential differences between these methods and preliminary results indicate that the average difference of coral cover estimates between the two methods was 4.1% (range 0-11%) based on 16 sample sites. In addition, Erinn Muller, a Nancy Foster Fellowship recipient, collaborated with the Biogeography Branch to examine the spatial distribution of coral diseases, to provide baseline information on disease prevalence over varying spatial scales and to establish spatial distributions of coral diseases around St. John.

Mission report: a strategy to inventory, characterize, and monitor the marine region within and around the National Park and Monument boundaries of St. John, USVI, July 21- July 31, 2008

The intent of this field mission was to continue ongoing efforts: (1) to spatially characterize and monitor the distribution, abundance and size of both reef fishes and conch within and around the waters of the Virgin Islands National Park (VIIS) and newly established Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument (VICR), (2) to correlate this information to in-situ data collected on associated habitat parameters, (3) to use this information to establish the knowledge base necessary for enacting management decisions in a spatial setting and to establish the efficacy of those management decisions. This work is supported by the National Park Service and NOAA’s Coral Reef Conservation Program’s Caribbean Coral Reef Ecosystem Monitoring Project. The report highlights the successes of this mission.

Characterizing Jobos Bay, Puerto Rico: a watershed modeling analysis and monitoring plan

Land-based pollution is commonly identified as a major contributor to the observed deterioration of shallow-water coral reef ecosystem health. Human activity on the coastal landscape often induces nutrient enrichment, hypoxia, harmful algal blooms, toxic contamination and other stressors that have degraded the quality of coastal waters. Coral reef ecosystems throughout Puerto Rico, including Jobos Bay, are under threat from coastal land uses such as urban development, industry and agriculture. The objectives of this report were two-fold: 1. To identify potentially harmful land use activities to the benthic habitats of Jobos Bay, and 2. To describe a monitoring plan for Jobos Bay designed to assess the impacts of conservation practices implemented on the watershed. This characterization is a component of the partnership between the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) established by the Conservation Effects Assessment Project (CEAP) in Jobos Bay. CEAP is a multi-agency effort to quantify the environmental benefits of conservation practices used by private landowners participating in USDA programs. The Jobos Bay watershed, located in southeastern Puerto Rico, was selected as the first tropical CEAP Special Emphasis Watershed (SEW). Both USDA and NOAA use their respective expertise in terrestrial and marine environments to model and monitor Jobos Bay resources. This report documents NOAA activities conducted in the first year of the three-year CEAP effort in Jobos Bay. Chapter 1 provides a brief overview of the project and background information on Jobos Bay and its watershed. Chapter 2 implements NOAA’s Summit to Sea approach to summarize the existing resource conditions on the watershed and in the estuary. Summit to Sea uses a GIS-based procedure that links patterns of land use in coastal watersheds to sediment and pollutant loading predictions at the interface between terrestrial and marine environments. The outcome of Summit to Sea analysis is an inventory of coastal land use and predicted pollution threats, consisting of spatial data and descriptive statistics, which allows for better management of coral reef ecosystems. Chapters 3 and 4 describe the monitoring plan to assess the ecological response to conservation practices established by USDA on the watershed. Jobos Bay is the second largest estuary in Puerto Rico, but has more than three times the shoreline of any other estuarine area on the island. It is a natural harbor protected from offshore wind and waves by a series of mangrove islands and the Punta Pozuelo peninsula. The Jobos Bay marine ecosystem includes 48 km² of mangrove, seagrass, coral reef and other habitat types that span both intertidal and subtidal areas. Mapping of Jobos Bay revealed 10 different benthic habitats of varying prevalence, and a large area of unknown bottom type covering 38% of the entire bay. Of the known benthic habitats, submerged aquatic vegetation, primarily seagrass, is the most common bottom type, covering slightly less than 30% of the bay. Mangroves are the dominant shoreline feature, while coral reefs comprise only 4% of the total benthic habitat. However, coral reefs are some of the most productive habitats found in Jobos Bay, and provide important habitat and nursery grounds for fish and invertebrates of commercial and recreational value.

Atlas of the shallow-water benthic habitats of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands

Digital maps of the shallow (<~30m deep) coral reef ecosystems of Majuro Atoll, Republic of the Marshall Islands, were created through visual interpretation of remote sensing imagery acquired between 2004 and 2006. Reef ecosystem features were digitized directly into a Geographic Information System. Benthic features were categorized according to a classification scheme with attributes including zone (location such as lagoon or forereef, etc.), structure (bottom type such as sand or patch reef, etc.) and percent hard bottom. This atlas consists of 27 detailed maps displaying reef zone and structure of coral ecosystems around Majuro. Adjacent maps in the atlas overlap slightly to ensure complete coverage. Maps and associated products can be used to support science and management activities on Majuro reef ecosystems including inventory, monitoring, conservation, and sustainable development applications. Maps are not to be used for navigation.

Atlas of the shallow-water benthic habitats of American Samoa, Guam, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Ocean Service (NOS) initiated a coral reef research program in 1999 to map, assess, inventory, and monitor U.S. coral reef ecosystems (Monaco et al. 2001). These activities were implemented in response to requirements outlined in the Mapping Implementation Plan developed by the Mapping and Information Synthesis Working Group (MISWG) of the Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF) (MISWG 1999). As part of the MISWG of the CRTF, NOS' Biogeography Branch has been charged with the development and implementation of a plan to produce comprehensive digital coral-reef ecosystem maps for all U.S. States, Territories, and Commonwealths within five to seven years. Joint activities between Federal agencies are particularly important to map, research, monitor, manage, and restore coral reef ecosystems. In response to the Executive Order 13089 and the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000, NOS is conducting research to digitally map biotic resources and coordinate a long-term monitoring program that can detect and predict change in U.S. coral reefs, and their associated habitats and biological communities. Most U.S. coral reef resources have not been digitally mapped at a scale or resolution sufficient for assessment, monitoring, and/or research to support resource management. Thus, a large portion of NOS' coral reef research activities has focused on mapping of U.S. coral reef ecosystems. The map products will provide the fundamental spatial organizing framework to implement and integrate research programs and provide the capability to effectively communicate information and results to coral reef ecosystem managers. Although the NOS coral program is relatively young, it has had tremendous success in advancing towards the goal to protect, conserve, and enhance the health of U.S. coral reef ecosystems. One objective of the program was to create benthic habitat maps to support coral reef research to enable development of products that support management needs and questions. Therefore this product was developed in collaboration with many U.S. Pacific Territory partners. An initial step in producing benthic habitat maps was the development of a habitat classification scheme. The purpose of this document is to outline the benthic habitat classification scheme and protocols used to map American Samoa, Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. Thirty-two distinct benthic habitat types (i.e., four major and 14 detailed geomorphological structure classes; eight major and 18 detailed biological cover types) within eleven zones were mapped directly into a geographic information system (GIS) using visual interpretation of orthorectified IKONOS satellite imagery. Benthic features were mapped that covered an area of 263 square kilometers. In all, 281 square kilometers of unconsolidated sediment, 122 square kilometers of submerged vegetation, and 82.3 square kilometers of coral reef and colonized hardbottom were mapped.

Spawning cycles and habitats for ballyhoo (Hemiramphus brasiliensis) and balao (H. balao) in south Florida

Two halfbeak species, ballyhoo (Hemiramphus brasiliensis) and balao (H. balao), are harvested as bait in south Florida waters, and recent changes in fishing effort and regulations prompted this investigation of the overlap of halfbeak fishing grounds and spawning grounds. Halfbeaks were sampled aboard commercial fishing vessels, and during fishery-independent trips, to determine spatial and temporal spawning patterns of both species. Cyclic patterns of gonadosomatic indices (GSIs) indicated that both species spawned during spring and summer months. Histological analysis demonstrated that specific stages of oocyte development can be predicted from GSI values; for example, female ballyhoo with GSIs >6.0 had hydrated oocytes that were 2.0−3.5 mm diameter. Diel changes in oocyte diameters and histological criteria demonstrated that final oocyte maturation occurred over a 30- to 36-hour period and that ballyhoo spawned at dusk. Hydration of oocytes began in the morning, and ovulation occurred at sunset of that same day; therefore females with hydrated oocytes were ready to spawn within hours. We compared maps of all locations where fish were collected to maps of locations where spawning females (i.e. females with GSIs >6.0) were collected to determine the degree of overlap of halfbeak fishing and spawning grounds. We also used geographic information system (GIS) data to describe the depth and bottom type of halfbeak spawning grounds. Ballyhoo spawned all along the coral reef tract of the Atlantic Ocean, inshore of the reef tract, and in association with bank habitats within Florida Bay. In the Atlantic Ocean, balao spawned along the reef tract and in deeper, more offshore waters than did ballyhoo; balao were not found inshore of the coral reef tract or in Florida Bay. Both halfbeak species, considered together, spawned throughout the fishing grounds of south Florida.

Age and size composition, growth rate, reproductive biology, and habitats of the West Australian dhufish (Glaucosoma hebraicum) and their relevance to the management of this species

Samples of the commercially and recreationally important West Australian dhufish (Glaucosoma hebraicum) were obtained from the lower west coast of Australia by a variety of methods. Fish <300 mm TL were caught over flat, hard substrata and low-lying limestone reefs, whereas larger fish were caught over larger limestone and coral reef formations. Maximum total lengths, weights, and ages were 981 mm, 15.3 kg, and 39 years, respectively, for females and 1120 mm, 23.2 kg, and 41 years, respectively, for males. The von Bertalanffy growth curves for females and males were significantly different. The values for L∞, k, and t0 in the von Bertalanffy growth equations were 929 mm, 0.111/year, and –0.141 years, respectively, for females, and 1025 mm, 0.111/year, and –0.052 years, respectively, for males. Preliminary estimates of total mortality indicated that G. hebraicum is now subjected to a level of fishing pressure that must be of concern to fishery managers. Glaucosoma hebraicum, which spawns between November and April and predominantly between December and March, breeds at a wide range of depths and is a multiple spawner. The L50’s for females and males at first maturity, i.e. 301 and 320 mm, respectively, were attained by about the end of the third year of life and are well below the minimum legal length (MLL) of 500 mm. Because females and males did not reach the MLL until the end of their seventh and sixth years of life, respectively, they would have had, on average, the opportunity of spawning during four and three spawning seasons, respectively, before they reached the MLL. However, because G. hebraicum caught in water depths >40 m typically die upon release, a MLL is of limited use for conserving this species. Alternative approaches, such as restricting fishing activity in highly fished areas, reducing daily bag limits for recreational fishermen, introducing quotas or revising specific details of certain commercial hand-line licences (or doing both) are more likely to provide effective conservation measures.

The Crown-of-Thorns starfish Acanthaster planci (Linne') in Ceylon

The Crown-of-Thorns starfish Acanthaster planci is a predator of coral and has been responsible for the widespread destruction of coral reefs. In Sri Lanka this starfish was first reported by Clarke in 1915. Recently skin-divers reported that Acanthaster planci was present in very large numbers in the coastal waters off Trincomalee, especially on the coral formations around Pigeon Island. It is well known that the multiplication of the starfish to plague proportions is a serious threat to the coral reef formations round the Island. If it were allowed to continue its depredations the entire coral reef belt round the Island might be destroyed in a short time. The monsoon waves would then convert the dead coral to rubble. In the absence of a barrier against the advancing waves during the monsoon it would also lead to serious erosion of the shoreline. The coral reef fish would also disappear with the destruction of the coral formations. On account of these considerations it was decided to conduct a survey of the Crown-of-Thorns starfish in eastern coastal waters in order to estimate the magnitude of the population of the starfish in these waters.

Survey of biosystematic and sexual reproductive physiology in Holothuroidea on Hormozgan Province

Sea cucumbers belong to phylum Echinodermata, order Holothuroidea are an abundant and diverse group of Invertebrates, with over 1400 species occuring from the intertidal to the deepest oceanic trenches. Sea cucumbers are important components of the food chain in temperate and coral reef ecosystems and they play an important role as deposite feeders and suspension feeders. Rapid decline in populations may have serious consequences for the survival of other species that are part of the same complex food web,as the eggs, larve and juveniles constitute an important food source for the other marine species including crustaceans, fish and mollusks. In addition sea cucumbers are often called the earthworms of the sea, because they are responsible for the extensive shifting and mixing of the substrate, and recycling of detrital matter. Sea cucumbers consume and grind sediment and organic material into finer particles , turning over the top layers of sediment in lagoons , reefs and other habitats and allowing the penetration of oxygen. While the taxonomy of the holothurian families is generally well known , the distinction of similar species is difficult. There are relatively few holothurian taxonomist.Most sea cucumber species can be identified by Holothurin taxonomists by using the calcareous skeletal ossicles found in the body wall. In this study , at first a sea cucumber from Kish island in Persian gulf has recognized. Individuals collected from west and east extend far away into north and south of coral reefs by diving. I have checked them morphologically and anatomically.Then with key to the orders of the Holothuroidea, They belong to the Aspidochirotida with key to the families of Aspidochirotida, they were in Stichopodidae families and with key to the genus of Stchopodidae, they were Stichopus. Then ossicles were extracted at National Museum of Natural History, by Dr David Pawson. The ossicles were measured on a transect across a slide prepared from the mid-dorsal region of each specimen.The one we have in the shallow waters of Kish island, is Stichopus hermanni, a massive holothurian, body broad, considerably flattened ventraly ,the dorsal side slightly arched and the lateral sides almost vertical; body wall fairy thick and soft ; mouth subterminal; anus central; tentacles usually 20 in number of length and leaf shaped. Numerous ossicles consisting of table with large discs having usually 7 to 15 peripheral holes, but often irregular or incomplete and spire of moderate height ending in a group of spinelets, rosettes of variable development, and c-shaped rods. Color (exept papillae)partly remained after preservation in alcohol which is found at the depth of 4 to 8 meters, on coral reef. Furthermore, the sexual reproductive cycle was described using standard methods. Gonads were removed and transferred to Bouin's fixative for four weeks and then processed according to standard embedding technique. To prevent the loss of tubule contents during embedding, the tubule sections, were cut well beyond the segment selected for sectioning. For each individual, six sections, each section with 5µm diameter by microtome were cut from tubules. These sections were first placed on gelatin coated slides (the gelatin was heated to 42°c) and then transferred to the oven at 37°c for one hour. This technique usually prevents the fragil tubules from breaking and the loss of gametes. The slides were stained with Eosin and Hematoxylin, and good resolution of the various cell types achieved.A second series of slides was stained with the Periodic Acid Schiff(PAS) to identify polysaccharides(glycogen). Monthly sampling was occurred.The sexual reproductive cycle was defined through the combined use of these criteria: Monthly percentages of the gonad stages for each sex, the monthly gonad index (GI) , given as the ratio of the wet gonad weight (G) to the dray weight (DW)and the monthly percentage of individuals that undetermined sex. The gonad consists of two tufts of tubules on which saccules develop. Gonadal development was classified into five stages: post spawning, recovery, growth, advanced growth, and mature stage that were adapted from the earlier studies of holothurians. Histological preparations showed that the sex of larger individuals could be identified by the presence of oogonia and young oocytes in females, and spermatogonic stages in males.The mean diameter of the tubules and gonadal mass follow annual cycles, increasing from late winter through spring, and dropping abruptly after spawning in the summer. Gametogenesis is generally a prolongate process and begins in March. By summer the ovarian tubules contain oocytes with diameter of 120-240 pm and the testicular tubules contain an abundance of spermatozoa (diameter 5-6 gm ).Following spawning the predominant activity within the spent tubules is phagocytosis of the residual gamets.The active phase of gametogenesis (March to July), coincides with an increasing photoperiod regim, and an accelerated gametogenesis occurs in July when temperature is high. Throughout the year, the gonad of Stichopus hermanni is larger in males than in females, and this is due to the number of tubules in the testis rather than to tubules length or diameter.

Ecological environment changes in Daya Bay, China, from 1982 to 2004

Data collected from 12 marine monitoring stations in Daya Bay from 1982 to 2004 reveal a substantial change in the ecological environment of this region. The average N/P ratio increased from 1.377 in 1985 to 49.09 in 2004. Algal species changed from 159 species of 46 genera in 1982 to 126 species of 44 genera in 2004. Major zooplankton species went from 46 species in 1983 to 36 species in 2004. The annual mean biomass of benthic animals was recorded at 123.10 gm(2) in 1982 and 126.68 g m(2) in 2004. Mean biomass and species of benthic animals near nuclear power plants ranged froth 317.9 g m(2) in 1991 to 45.24 g m(2) in 2004 and from 250 species in 1991 to 177 species in 2004. A total of 12-19 species of hermatypic corals and 13 species of mangrove plants were observed in Daya Bay from 1984 to 2002. 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

南沙群岛工程地质环境分区与珊瑚礁工程地质特性研究

Nansha Islands as sacred territory of China, containing abundant natural resources is the important area of sustaining development of Chinese people. Safeguarding and developing Nansha Islands has become one important part to develop ocean resource of China in 21 century. Engineering geological problems will be faced inevitably in the processes of engineering construction. Coral reef is a new kind of soil and rock and has special engineering characteristics. This doctoral dissertation researches deeply and systematically the regional engineering geology environmental properties and quality, engineering geological characteristics of coral reefs sand on the basis of synthetic analysis of hydrology, climate, geology, geomorphology and engineering field exploration information and combining the experimental data. 1. Put forward the division program of engineering geological environment of Nansha Islands according to the data of hydrology, geology and sediments, and also deeply study the properties of each division. Evaluate the quality of engineering geological environment by fuzzy mathematics and draw the evaluation map of quality of engineering geological environment. The research work provides background support of engineering geological environment to program of resource development in Nansha Islands. 2. Structures of coral reefs have been analyzed. The model of engineering geological zone has been proposed on the basis of geomorphologic zone and combining the strata and ocean dynamic environment. The engineering construction appropriation of each zone is praised. 3. The physical and mechanical properties of coral sands are researched. The results show that coral sands have high void ratio, non-regular shape, easy grain crushing and large compressibility. Shear-expansion takes place only at very low confining pressure and shear-contraction of volumetric strain occurs at higher confining pressure. Internal friction angle decreases with the increasing of confining pressure. The grain crushing property is the main factor influencing the mechanical characteristics. 4. A revised E-ν constitutive model is proposed which considers the change of internal friction angle with confining pressure, and parameter values are also determined. 5. The stability of Yongshu Reef by is analysed for the purpose of serving engineering struction. The process and mechanism of deformation and failure of foundation and slope is analyzed by finite-element method.

Evaluation of effective groundwater recharge of freshwater lens in small islands by the combined modeling of geoelectrical data and water heads

In small islands, a freshwater lens can develop due to the recharge induced by rain. Magnitude and spatial distribution of this recharge control the elevation of freshwater and the depth of its interface with salt water. Therefore, the study of lens morphology gives useful information on both the recharge and water uptake due to evapotranspiration by vegetation. Electrical resistivity tomography was applied on a small coral reef island, giving relevant information on the lens structure. Variable density groundwater flow models were then applied to simulate freshwater behavior. Cross validation of the geoelectrical model and the groundwater model showed that recharge exceeds water uptake in dunes with little vegetation, allowing the lens to develop. Conversely, in the low-lying and densely vegetated sectors, where water uptake exceeds recharge, the lens cannot develop and seawater intrusion occurs. This combined modeling method constitutes an original approach to evaluate effective groundwater recharge in such environments.
[Comte, J.-C., O. Banton, J.-L. Join, and G. Cabioch (2010), Evaluation of effective groundwater recharge of freshwater lens in small islands by the combined modeling of geoelectrical data and water heads, Water Resour. Res., 46, W06601, doi:10.1029/2009WR008058.]