A New Collaboration Between Josep Lluís Sert and Joan Miró on Their Return to Spain: From the Republic Pavilion to Joan Miró Studio

Ponencia publicada en las Actas del Congreso Internacional de la EAHN (EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY NETWORK), celebrado en Bruselas del 31 Mayo -3 Junio 2012.

Arquitecturas desplazadas. Rafael Bergamín y las arquitecturas del exilio español en Venezuela

El siglo XX ha sido el siglo de los desplazamientos. Una ingente cantidad de personas fueron forzadas por motivos políticos, o se vieron obligadas por motivos económicos, a abandonar sus territorios de origen, generando un distanciamiento que en la mayoría de los casos resultaría irrecuperable. Las penurias vividas en Europa, las oportunidades que se abrían en países americanos, o la presión ejercida por los regímenes totalitarios, llevaron a un buen número de profesionales, artistas e intelectuales europeos a territorio americano. El presente trabajo se propone indagar sobre una de esas migraciones que se establecieron en Latinoamérica en la primera mitad del siglo XX: la de los arquitectos españoles que se vieron forzados al exilio. Para ello se busca poner en evidencia no sólo sus aportaciones sino también la influencia que ejerció en su obra la cultura de los países de adopción. Venezuela recibió gran parte del contingente de arquitectos españoles desplazados como consecuencia de la Guerra Civil. Tras México fue el país que mayor número acogió. La llegada de dichos exiliados coincidió con el momento en que la sociedad venezolana, de base agrícola y comercial, pasaría a evidenciar el impacto de la revolución petrolera. Así pues, dicha llegada supuso no sólo la dramática pérdida del mundo previo, implícita en todo exilio, sino el arribo a una sociedad en profundo proceso de cambio. En ambos casos se trataba de “mundos que se desvanecen”. Se propone la asunción de la obra de dichos profesionales como una arquitectura desplazada. Un desplazamiento que se produce en dos sentidos: por un lado, se trata de un desplazamiento físico, por otro, la palabra desplazada habla también de la condición secundaria que adquiere la arquitectura ante el drama vital y de supervivencia que afectó a los exiliados. Así pues, a un desplazamiento físico, verificable, se une un desplazamiento en cuanto al nivel de importancia y de atención asignado a la arquitectura. El trabajo comprende una introducción, cuatro capítulos, y un epílogo, a modo de conclusión. A lo largo de dichos capítulos se conjugan el enfoque individual en la obra de uno de estos arquitectos desterrados, Rafael Bergamín, y la visión “coral” de diversas trayectorias vitales que enfrentaron un destino común. Se elige la figura de Bergamín como eje de desarrollo debido a la presencia significativa que tuvo su obra tanto en España como en Venezuela, y por la caracterización de la misma como obra construida en colaboración. La introducción, “Exilios arquitectónicos”, muestra el sustrato estructural, la fundamentación y la metodología empleada, incluyendo “problematizaciones” sobre el exilio arquitectónico. El primer capítulo, “Memoria de partida”, da cuenta de la formación y actuación, durante la preguerra, de los arquitectos españoles que saldrían al exilio. Se introduce un esquema de base generacional y se revela un panorama para nada unívoco. El segundo capítulo, “Guerra y salida al exilio”, aborda la actuación de dichos arquitectos durante la contienda bélica así como la posterior dispersión general del exilio. El tercer capítulo, “Construir desde lo que se desvanece. Arquitectos del exilio español en Venezuela”, propone diversos presupuestos conceptuales en torno al tema del desplazamiento en la arquitectura, revisando la adscripción disciplinar y profesional de los arquitectos españoles exiliados en Venezuela. El cuarto capítulo, “El regreso”, versa sobre el recorrido final de estos arquitectos. Como marco general, se revisa su itinerario de regreso o, en muchos casos, la imposibilidad de retorno. Por último, se dispone la fuente de los diversos documentos de archivos y repositorios, así como el aparato bibliográfico y referencial, empleados en la investigación. Tres anexos se adjuntan al corpus del trabajo. El primero presenta documentos inéditos, hallados durante el pertinente proceso de investigación; el segundo, dibujos de Bergamín, básicamente de las primeras décadas del siglo XX: caricaturas, anuncios y trabajos de la Escuela; el tercero, un esbozo biográfico de los arquitectos del exilio español. ABSTRACT The 20th Century has been the century of displacements. An enormous number of people were forced to leave their homelands for political or economic reasons, which generated a gap that in most of the cases would be unrecoverable. The hardships that people had to endure in Europe, the opportunities that emerged in American countries, or the pressure exerted by totalitarian regimes drove a good number of European professionals, artists and intellectuals to American territory. This research study is intended to investigate one of those migrations that settled in Latin America during the first half of the 20th century: the one of the Spanish architects that were forced into exile. To achieve this, an attempt was made to expose not only their contributions but also the influence that the culture of the countries which welcomed them exerted in their work. Venezuela received a large portion of Spanish architects who were displaced as a consequence of the Civil War. After Mexico, it was the country that sheltered the greatest number of persons. The arrival of these exiled Spanish architects coincided with the moment in which the Venezuelan society – based on agriculture and commerce – would witness the impact of the revolution of the oil industry. Thus, their arrival supposed not only experiencing the dramatic loss of their previous world – implicit in the notion of the exile – but also settling in a society going through a profound change process. In both cases it was about “two worlds that were vanishing.” The assumption of these architects’ work is regarded as a displaced architecture. A displacement that takes place in two ways: on one hand, there was a physical displacement, and on the other hand, the word displaced also talks about the second place that architecture is given when confronted with the urgent drama of survival that affected the exiled community. Hence, a physical, verifiable displacement is combined with a displacement that has to do with the importance and the attention given to architecture. This research study encompasses an introduction, four chapters, and an epilogue as a conclusion. Throughout the chapters, the individual approach to the work of one of these exiled architects, Rafael Bergamín, runs in parallel to an overall view of various other architects’ career paths that faced a common destiny. The work of the architect Bergamín was chosen as the center of this research study due to the significant presence that his work had in Spain as well as in Venezuela, and because its main characteristic was that it was built in collaboration with other architects. The introduction, “Architectural exiles”, shows the structural contextualization, the explanatory thesis statement and the methodology used, including “problematizations” about the architectural exile. The first chapter, “Memory of departure”, contains the academic background and performance during the pre-war time of the Spanish architects that would go into exile. An outline based on different generations and revealing an unambiguous perspective is introduced. The second chapter, “War and departure into exile”, tackles the performance of the Spanish architects during the war, as well as the following general diaspora into exile. The third chapter, “Building from what vanishes. Architects of the Spanish exile in Venezuela”, proposes various conceptual assumptions concerning the topic of displacement in architecture according to the doctrine and professional affiliations of the Spanish architects exiled in Venezuela. The fourth chapter, “The return”, deals with the end of these architects’ careers. As a general framework, their itineraries to return, or in many cases, the impossibility of returning, are reviewed. Finally, the sources to the various documents of files and repositories, as well as the bibliographical references consulted for the research, are provided. Three annexes have been attached to this research study. The first annex contains unpublished documents found during the research process; the second includes Bergamín’s drawings, basically from the first decades of the 20th century, such as, caricatures, advertisements and assignments done when he was a university student; and the third annex presents a biographical outline of the architects of the Spanish exile.

A bivariate return period based on copulas for hydrologic dam design: accounting for reservoir routing in risk estimation

A multivariate analysis on flood variables is needed to design some hydraulic structures like dams, as the complexity of the routing process in a reservoir requires a representation of the full hydrograph. In this work, a bivariate copula model was used to obtain the bivariate joint distribution of flood peak and volume, in order to know the probability of occurrence of a given inflow hydrograph. However, the risk of dam overtopping is given by the maximum water elevation reached during the routing process, which depends on the hydrograph variables, the reservoir volume and the spillway crest length. Consequently, an additional bivariate return period, the so-called routed return period, was defined in terms of risk of dam overtopping based on this maximum water elevation obtained after routing the inflow hydrographs. The theoretical return periods, which give the probability of occurrence of a hydrograph prior to accounting for the reservoir routing, were compared with the routed return period, as in both cases hydrographs with the same probability will draw a curve in the peak-volume space. The procedure was applied to the case study of the Santillana reservoir in Spain. Different reservoir volumes and spillway lengths were considered to investigate the influence of the dam and reservoir characteristics on the results. The methodology improves the estimation of the Design Flood Hydrograph and can be applied to assess the risk of dam overtopping

Pietilä: El proyecto de Dipoli

Dipoli es un edificio plurifuncional localizado en el campus de Otaniemi que acoge los servicios generales del alumnado. Tanto encargo como propiedad pertenecía, hasta 2013, a la Asociación de Estudiantes de Helsinki University of Technology TKK (actualmente conocida como Aalto University), cuando se vendió y traspasó a la propia universidad. La tesis estudia este proyecto (1961-66) como uno de los ejemplos más significativos de la obra de los arquitectos Reima (1923-93)y Raili Pietilä (1926-), quienes se unieron tanto personal como profesionalmente el mismo año de la convocatoria del concurso (1961). Debido a la dificultad del encargo por la dimensión y flexibilidad de los espacios requeridos, el primer premio quedó desierto puesto que ninguna propuesta cumplía con todos los requisitos establecidos. El jurado otorgó el segundo premio a su proyecto junto con Osmo Lappo y solicitó posteriormente a ambos un desarrollo más profundo del mismo. Finalmente optaron por construir el edificio planteado por los Pietilä. En él debía desarrollarse un amplio abanico de actividades sociales como reuniones, entretenimiento nocturno, actuaciones, proyecciones de películas, cenas y bailes, así como servir de comedor durante los meses de invierno y espacio destinado a congresos en la época estival. Además, en dicho edificio se pretendía acoger el Sindicato de Estudiantes de la Universidad Tecnológica de Helsinki y se localizaría en el nuevo campus de Otaniemi a escasos kilómetros de la capital, donde Alvar Aalto ya estaba diseñando varios equipamientos universitarios siguiendo el planeamiento general que proyectó en el concurso de 1949. El elemento más característico de este proyecto es la cubierta, una estructura continua formada a partir de un caparazón hueco de hormigón in situ capaz de absorber dos lenguajes diferentes y generar, bajo ella, un espacio singular con multitud de posibilidades funcionales. Su geometría permite dividir el programa en estancias de menor tamaño sin perder ni la identidad ni unidad formal. La manera en que se iluminan los espacios bajo ella se consigue de formas diferentes: si bien la volumetría de líneas cartesianas presenta un sistema de aperturas longitudinales por donde penetra la luz cenital, en la forma más libre aparecen un conjunto de lucernarios de diferente tamaños y posiciones aparentemente aleatorias que introducen la luz natural por el plano del techo de forma más controlada, apoyada por la disposición de las ventanas perimetrales. El juego de espesores de la cubierta ofrece un conjunto de matices que pretenden resolver los tres condicionantes principales del proyecto, la adecuación de los usos en su interior, la compatibilidad de circulaciones de los usuarios y la inserción en el lugar. La percepción de este plano horizontal atraviesa lecturas múltiples, desde su uso primario de cubrición y cuya distancia con el plano del suelo se comprime para tensionar la grieta de luz al tiempo que ofrece nuevas relaciones con el paisaje hasta convertirse en fachada al apoyarse en el suelo y crear un límite físico entre interior y exterior. El objetivo fundamental de la tesis es entender mejor la traza particular de Dipoli desde una visión rigurosa que amplíe el conocimiento del edificio y al mismo tiempo explique el espacio propuesto a través de las diferentes herramientas de proyecto. Para ello se ha elaborado una documentación de la obra que parte de recopilar, seleccionar y redibujar la información existente desde el estado previo a la construcción del objeto terminado. El sentido de volver al Centro de Estudiantes de Otaniemi, supone, además de ayudar a comprender el trabajo de sus autores, entender el proceso de la historia de la arquitectura finlandesa y detectar relaciones con otras obras más lejanas con las que pudiese compartir ciertos valores, facilitando un entendimiento más global de la historia. Esta investigación se inicia desde la hipótesis que la forma final del edificio y su relación con el lugar, para proponer un tipo de arquitectura que confía en la observación sensible del programa, del uso, de las escalas de los espacios, del movimiento de las personas y su relación y anclaje con el lugar. Y en este sentido, el trabajo se desarrolla guiado por estos aspectos que se manifiestan también desde la influencia y comprensión de otros trabajos propios y ajenos. Para detectar las claves de proyecto que les han permitido la construcción espacial y formal de su arquitectura, entendiendo éstas como el conjunto de herramientas y mecanismos que reflexionan sobre una particular composición volumétrica y espacios dinámicos que ofrecen un aspecto exterior expresivo, la tesis se articula sobre dos capítulos principales “Contextos” y “Proyecto y Construcción” donde se quiere estudiar el proyecto en su forma más completa. Esta pareja de apartados aborda la descripción del marco temporal, físico, cultural, personal y profesional de los arquitectos, el análisis y síntesis de la propuesta y, por último, la repercusión del proyecto. Contextos pretende ubicar la obra además de facilitar la comprensión del conjunto de aspectos y condicionantes que determinaron la materialización de Dipoli. Este capítulo se subdivide a su vez en cinco apartados: Contexto Histórico, Físico y Cultural, Personal, Profesional e Incidencia de Dipoli. El Contexto histórico se centra en la descripción pormenorizada del conjunto de situaciones que influyen en el arquitecto cuando se toman decisiones durante el proceso de proyectar. El objetivo es definir los condicionantes que pueden haber afectado directa o indirectamente la obra. El capítulo comienza subrayando los temas de interés comunes para el resto de sus homólogos finlandeses. Principalmente se centra en la década de 1950 como etapa previa a la gestación de Dipoli. También atiende el proceso de evolución de la arquitectura finlandesa desde finales del S.XIX unido a la crisis de identidad nacional que el maestro Alvar Aalto superará por sus obras pero también por su personalidad y supondrá una gran sombra al resto de sus compañeros en el marco nacional e internacional provocando una reacción contraria a sus proyectos y persona entre el resto de arquitectos. Por este motivo, al tiempo que se gestaba el proyecto de Dipoli emergieron un grupo de profesionales que defendían fuertemente las trazas cartesianas del racionalismo como Aulis Blomstedt o Juhani Pallasmaa y que consiguieron abrir una nueva perspectiva intelectual. Por tanto será inevitable que la presencia del maestro nórdico Alvar Aalto aparezca a lo largo de toda la tesis, permitiéndonos un mejor entendimiento de la carga orgánica y humana de sus trabajos desde la perspectiva de los Pietilä. Posteriormente este capítulo desgrana aquellos intereses que dominaban el marco arquitectónico internacional y que pudieron influir en las soluciones planteadas. Dipoli será puesto en relación a diversas arquitecturas contemporáneas que presentan un enfoque diferente al esbozado por el Movimiento Moderno y cuyo marco de referencias guarda algún tipo de relación con los mismos temas de proyecto. Es el caso del grupo Team 10 o determinados ejemplos de arquitectos alemanes como Hugo Häring y Hans Scharoun, incluso puntos en común con el sistema constructivista del vanguardismo soviético. Estas relaciones con otras arquitecturas matizan su carácter singular e incluso se revisa en qué medida esta propuesta amplifica los aspectos que comparten. En cuanto al Contexto físico y cultural, una primera aproximación al ámbito donde el edificio se sitúa nos revela las características generales de un lugar claramente diferente a la ubicación del resto de edificios del campus. A continuación se adentra en el origen del nuevo centro universitario desde el planeamiento urbanístico de Alvar Aalto y revela tanto la forma de disponer las construcciones como las propuestas que el maestro había desarrollado con anterioridad a la convocatoria del concurso. Además aquí se destacan aquellos aspectos que propiciaron la elección del solar. Prosigue adentrándose en el programa propuesto por el jurado –entre cuyos miembros se encontraba el propio Aalto- y el análisis de las propuestas presentadas por cada uno de los arquitectos que obtuvieron una mención. Por último, se estudian y definen las obras más relevantes localizadas en el entorno físico del proyecto y que existían con anterioridad, destacando principalmente el trabajo de los Siren (Heikki y Kaija) y Alvar Aalto por los motivos desarrollados en el punto anterior. Prosigue con el Contexto Personal donde se seleccionan de datos biográficos que expliquen, en parte, las circunstancias personales que perfilaron su manera de entender la arquitectura y que consecuentemente influyeron en su camino intelectual hasta llegar a Dipoli. A continuación se indaga en la relación profesional y personal con Raili Paatelainen para establecer en qué medida participaron ambos en la propuesta. Este apartado concluye con el estudio de la etapa docente que profundiza en los temas de proyecto que Pietilä presentaba a los alumnos en sus clases de proyectos. En el proceso de comprensión de la evolución teórica y proyectual de los arquitectos se considera imprescindible la revisión de otros edificios propios que se enmarcan en el Contexto profesional. Éstos forman parte de la etapa de mayor actividad del estudio como son el Pabellón de Finlandia para la Exposición de Bruselas (1956-58), la Iglesia de Kaleva en Tampere (1959-66) y el Pabellón Nórdico para la Bienal de Venecia de 1960. Se completa la visión de estos tres ejemplos previos a Dipoli desde las investigaciones teóricas que realizó de forma paralela y que se difundieron a través de varias exposiciones. Nos centraremos en aquellas tres que fueron más relevantes en la madurez del arquitecto (Morfología y Urbanismo, La Zona y Estudios Modulares) para establecer relaciones entre unos aspectos y otros. En esta sección no se pretende realizar un análisis en profundidad, ni tampoco recoger la mayor parte de la obra de los Pietilä, sino más bien revelar los rasgos más significativos que faciliten el entendimiento de los valores anteriormente mencionados. Por último, Incidencia de Dipoli se refiere a la repercusión del edificio durante su construcción y finalización. Desde esta premisa, recoge el conjunto de críticas publicadas en las revistas de mayor difusión internacional que decidieron mostrar la propuesta además desde el propio interés del proyecto, por tratarse de un arquitecto reconocido internacionalmente gracias a la repercusión que obtuvieron sus proyectos anteriores. Se analiza el contenido de los artículos para establecer diversos encuentros con el capítulo Contextos y con los propios escritos de Pietilä. También se recogen las opiniones de críticos relevantes como Kenneth Frampton, Bruno Zevi o Christian Norberg-Schulz, destacando aquellos aspectos por los que mostraron un interés mayor. También se recoge y valora la opinión de sus homólogos finlandeses y que contradictoriamente se sitúa en el polo opuesto a la del juicio internacional. Se adentra en las situaciones complejas que propició el rechazo del edificio al desvincularse por completo de la corriente racionalista que dominaba el pensamiento crítico finés unido a la búsqueda de nuevas alternativas proyectuales que les distanciase del éxito del maestro Alvar Aalto. Pretende esclarecer tanto la justificación de dichos comentarios negativos como los motivos por los cuales Reima y Raili no obtuvieron encargos durante casi diez años, tras la finalización de Dipoli. Nos referiremos también a la propia opinión de los arquitectos. Para ello, en el apartado Morfología Literal se recoge el texto que Reima Pietilä publicó en el número 9 de la revista Arkkitehti para contrarrestar las numerosas críticas recibidas. Se subraya aquellos aspectos de proyecto que inciden directamente en la percepción y razón de ser de la propuesta. Por último, se manifiesta la valoración crítica de dos personas muy próximas al entorno personal y profesional de los Pietilä: Roger Connah y Malcolm Quantrill. Ambas figuras son las que han adentrado en el trabajo de los arquitectos con mayor profundidad y aportado una visión más completa del contexto arquitectónico de Finlandia en el s.XX. Se han interesado principalmente por el conocimiento morfológico que les ha llevado a la observación de los fenómenos de la naturaleza. Se apunta también la falta de objetividad de sus opiniones originadas en parte por haber colaborado profesionalmente y ser amigo íntimo de la familia respectivamente. El valor de la documentación aportada por ambos reside principalmente en la fiel transmisión de las explicaciones del propio Pietilä. El último capítulo Proyecto y Construcción engloba tanto la descripción exhaustiva del proyecto como el análisis de la obra. Al tiempo que se explica la propuesta, se establecen continuamente relaciones y paralelismos con otras arquitecturas que ayudan a entenderla. Para ello, se establecen tres apartados elementales: “El lugar”, “Programa y geometrías” y “Presencia y materialidad física” y se pretende identificar aquellas herramientas de proyecto en las que confía para la materialización de la obra al tiempo que se profundiza en la evolución de la propuesta. En cuanto a El lugar, se describe de manera pormenorizada el recorrido hasta alcanzar el edificio y cómo la mirada atenta de la naturaleza que lo rodea está continuamente presente en todos los dibujos de la propuesta. Se realiza un estudio tanto de la multiplicidad de accesos como del vacío existente en planta baja que forma parte del espacio público y que atraviesa el edificio diagonalmente. Desde aquí se evaluará los espacios intermedios existentes que matizan los ámbitos donde se desarrolla cada una de las actividades. A continuación se enfoca el estudio de la ventana como elemento relevante en la transición de espacios interiores y exteriores para posteriormente adentrarnos en la importancia de los recorridos en la planta superior y cómo las salas polivalentes se acomodan a estos. Programas y geometrías explica la solución y desarrollo de la propuesta a través de los tanteos de la planta. Detecta simultáneamente aquellos aspectos que aparecen en otros proyectos y que pueden haber influido en el desarrollo de la obra. Una vez que han sido estudiados los dos niveles se introduce la sección para analizar las conexiones entre ambos planos, destacando los tipos de escaleras y accesos que propician la multiplicidad de recorridos y en consecuencia el movimiento de las personas. En el último apartado se identifica la geometría de la estructura a través de la descripción formal de la cubierta y sus apoyos en planta para conocer cómo responde el volumen definitivo a la adecuación de los usos. El carácter del edificio a través del empleo de los materiales y las técnicas de construcción utilizadas se indaga desde la Materialidad física. Este punto de vista esclarece temas de proyecto como la relación multisensorial de Dipoli y el concepto del tiempo relacionado con espacios de carácter dinámico o estático. Una vez se ha realizado un análisis de la obra construida a través de sus recorridos, se plantea un último regreso al exterior para observar la presencia del edificio a través de su tamaño, color y texturas. Este apartado nos mostrará la mirada atenta a la escala del proyecto como vector de dirección que pretende encontrar la inserción adecuada del edificio en el lugar, cerrando el proceso de proyecto. El motivo de desarrollar esta tesis en torno a Dipoli se apoya en su consideración como paradigma de una arquitectura que confía en la observación sensible del programa, uso, las escalas de los espacios, circulaciones y su relación y anclaje con el lugar como argumentos fundamentales de proyecto, cuya realidad concreta consigue situar la propuesta en el marco histórico de la arquitectura nórdica e internacional. Además la distancia histórica desde mundo actual respecto a la década de los años 60 del s.XX nos permite entender el contexto cultural donde se inserta Dipoli que continúa nuestra historia reciente de la arquitectura y concibe la obra construida como una extensión de nuestro mundo contemporáneo. Por ello se valora el proyecto desde la mirada hacia atrás que analiza las diferencias entre la realidad construida y las intenciones de partida. Esta revisión dotada de una distancia crítica nos permite adentrarnos en la investigación de manera objetiva. Igualmente presenta una distancia histórica (referida al tiempo transcurrido desde su construcción) y socio-cultural que favorece la atenuación de prejuicios y aspectos morales que puedan desviar una mirada analítica y se alejen de una valoración imparcial. Dipoli, enmarcada en dicho periodo, mantiene la capacidad crítica para ser analizada. ABSTRACT The dissertation defends Dipoli ( 1961-1966 ) as one of the most significant examples of the Reima ( 1923-1993 ) Raili Pietilä (1926 -), who joined both personally and professionally the same year of the project´s competition (1961). Due to the difficulty of the commission by the size and flexibility of the required areas, there was not first prize awarded because none of the submitted proposals met all the requirements. The jury awarded Dipoli with second prize together with a competing scheme by Osmo Lappo. The board subsequently asked for a further development of both proposals and finally selected the one by Pietilä. The completed project allows a wide range of social activities such as meetings, night entertainment, performances, film screenings, dinners and dance to take place while the facility can also serve as a dining hall during winter months and conference center in the summer when necessary. In addition, the building was intended to house the Helsinki University of Technology (now Aalto University) Student Union. The University, at the time being designed by Alvar Aalto following his successful entry to the master plan competition in 1949, was located a few kilometers from the capital on the new campus in Otaniemi. The most characteristic element of the project is its roof which can be described as a continuous form achieved an in-situ concrete cavity structure that can modulate two different geometric languages and generate a singular space under it. The building is, in general terms, an unique shell space with many functional possibilities. Its geometry allows the program to split its functions into smaller sizes without losing the identity or formal unity of the general object. The way in which the spaces are illuminated is solved in two different ways. First, while the Cartesian-line volume presents a series of longitudinal openings into which natural light penetrates, the free-form volume shows a set of skylights in apparently random positions that vary in size and that introduce natural light through the roof in a more controlled manner. In addition the perimeter openings are present that relate directly to the nature that surrounds the building. The adaptable thickness of the roof provides a set of solutions that resolve the three main issues of the project: the adequacy of the functions in the interior areas, the complex capability for user flows and circulation and the manner in which the building is inserted in its context. The perception of the roof´ horizontal plane offers multiple interpretations, from its primary use as a primitive cover whose distance from the ground compresses the void and creates a light tension, to the new relationships with the landscape where by the roof becomes a façade cladding and rests directly on the ground to create a physical boundary between interior and exterior. The main scope of this research is to better understand the particular trace of Dipoli from a rigorous architectural view to deep into the knowledge of the building and, at the same time, to explain the space through a series of project design tools that have been used. For this reason, an accurate documentation has arisen from collecting, selecting and redrawing the existing information from the sketching stage to the built object. A through reanalysis of the Otaniemi Student Center therefore provides not only a more complete understanding of the work of the architects, but also leads to a better comprehension of the history of Finnish architecture, which is related to other cultural relationships and which shares certain architectural values which a more comprehensive understanding of general architectural history. This research starts from the working hypothesis that the final shape of the building and its relationship to its place created a type of architecture that relies on a sensitive observation of the program, the use of varying scales of space, the movement and flow of people and finally the coexistence with the natural context. In this sense, the work is developed based on those aspects that are also reflected in the influence of others architects by understanding both their own and other architects´ work. In order to obtain a personal reading of the project facts that allowed the architects construct Dipoli (understanding the facts as a set of tools and project mechanisms that are able to generate a particular volumetric composition and dynamic spaces that at the same time provide an expressive exterior), the research hinges on two main sections, "Contexts" and "Design and Construction", that study the project from all perspectives. This two parts address the description of temporal , physical , cultural , personal and professional framework, analysis and synthesis of the proposal and finally, the national and international influences on the project. Contexts seek to place the work and to facilitate the understanding of all aspects and conditions that led to the creation of Dipoli. This chapter is subdivided into five sections: Historical Context, Cultural and Physical, Personal, Professional and Dipoli Influences. Historical Context focuses on a detailed description of a set of precedents that influenced the architect when making decisions during design process. The objective is to define the conditions that could directly or indirectly shape the work. This chapter begins by highlighting issues of common interest to the rest its Finnish counterparts. The text is mainly focused on the 1950s as a prelude to Dipoli´s conception. It will also address the process of Finnish architecture from the late nineteenth century as linked to the national identity crisis that the great master Alvar Aalto overcame with both his works and personality, being a great drain on the rest of his colleagues. This aspect caused a reaction against Aalto and his projects. For this reason, at the time that Dipoli came into being a number of professionals who strongly defended the traces of Cartesian Rationalism, including Juhani Pallasmaa and Aulis Blomstedt emerged and brought a new intellectual perspective to the Finnish architecture scene. It is thus inevitable that the presence of Alvar Aalto will be apparent throughout the dissertation to allow a better understanding of the organizational and human character of their work from the Pietiläs´ perspective. Later, this chapter identifies those interests that dominated the international architectural framework that could have influenced Dipoli. The project will be placed in relation to various contemporary architectural works that were created using a different approach to that outlined by the Modern Movement. This is present in the case of Team 10 group and with specific examples of German architects including Hans Scharoun and Hugo Häring, as well as some commonalities with Soviet Constructivism. These relationships with other architecture qualify its singular character and even extend how this proposal amplifies those shared aspects. Physical and Cultural Context involves the unique site where the building is located which includes different features from the location of other buildings on the campus. IT then progresses into the origin of the new campus from the urban planning of Alvar Aalto and reveals both the setting and proposed constructions that Aalto had developed. This section also highlights the aspects that led to the choice of the site. I go deep into the program proposed by the jury (of whom Aalto was a member) and the analysis of the alternative proposals that received a special commendation. Finally, I study and define the most relevant works located near Dipoli, emphasizing primarily the work of the Sirens (Heikki and Kaija) and Alvar Aalto for the reasons developed in the previous section. I then proceed with the Personal Context, where a series of biographical data are selected to begin to explain the personal circumstances that outlined the Pietilas´ architectural understanding and consequently could have influenced their intellectual approach to design Dipoli. Then the text explores their professional and personal relationship to establish what extent they participated in the proposal. This section concludes with the study of the Reima Pietilä´s teaching period at Oulu that explores the issues he presented to his students there. In the process of understanding the Pietiläs´ theoretical and design evolution, it must be considered essential to study other buildings that are part of their professional context. These projects belong to the most active stage of their office and include the Finnish Pavilion for the World´s Fair in Brussels (1956-1958), Kaleva Church in Tampere (1959-1966) and the Nordic Pavilion at the 1960 Venice Biennale. We will complete the view of Dipoli from previous theoretical investigations performed in parallel that were spread through several exhibitions. We will focus on the three that were most relevant to the evolution of the architect (Morphology and Urbanism, the Zone, and Stick Studies) to establish a series of useful relationships. This section is not intended to be an in-depth analysis nor to collect most of the work of the Pietiläs´; but rather to reveal the most significant features that facilitate an understanding of the above values. Finally, Dipoli´s Impact refers to the influence of the building from many points of view during its construction and after its completion. It collects the reviews published in the world's most relevant magazines which had decided to show the alternate proposals, generally conceived of by internationally-renowned architects. I analyze the content of the articles in order to establish a series of parallels with the chapter Contexts and own writings Pietilä to clarify if main design directions were clear at that time. The views of relevant critics, including Kenneth Frampton, Bruno Zevi and Christian Norberg -Schulz, are also collected here. This episode also collects and assesses the views of these critics´ Finnish counterparts that generally stood at the opposite side of the international debate. It delves into the complex situation that led to the rejection of the building by the rationalists that dominated the Finnish critical thinking while searching for new alternatives to distance themselves from the Alvar Aalto´s success. It aims to clarify both the justification for these negative comments and the reasons why Reima and Raili not obtain a single commission for nearly ten years after the completion of Dipoli. From the critics we will approach the opinion of Reima Pietilä himself. To do this, in the Literal Morphology section we will see how the architect tried to defend his position. Those design tool that directly affected the perception of the proposal are provided through the figures of Roger Connah and Malcolm Quantrill. Finally, a critical –personal and professional- review of these two very close figures will take place. Despite knowing that both delved into the work of architects with greater depth and provided a complete view of the Finnish architectural context in 20th century, they have focused mainly morphological knowledge which has led to the observation of natural phenomena. It also notes the lack of objectivity in their views caused in part by, in the case of Connah, collaborating professionally and in that of Quantrill being a close friend of the Pietilä family. The value of the documentation provided by both resides mainly in the faithful transmission of the Pietiläs´ own explanations. The final chapter covers both Design and Construction and provides a comprehensive project description in order tofaithfully analyse the work. As the proposal is being explained, relationships of its built form are continuously linked to other architectural projects to gain a better understanding of Dipoli itself. To do this we have set three basic sections: "The Place", "Geometries & Function" and "Presence and Materiality. Construction process" that intended to identify those project tools for the realization of the work while deepens the proposal´s evolution. The Place describes how to approach and reach the building in detail and how the view out towards the surrounding natural setting is continuously shown in the proposal´s drawings. We will study both the multiplicity of entrances as well as the corridor downstairs as part of the public space that diagonally goes through the building. Then, the existing voids in the concrete cave for public activities will be evaluated. Lastly, the study will focus on the openings as a significant element in the transition from interior and exterior areas to describe the importance of the circulation on the second floor and how function is able to accommodate through the areas of void. Geometries & Function explains the final solution and the development of the proposal through the floor plan. Simultaneously it detects those aspects that appear in other projects and that may have influenced the development of the work. Once we have analyzed both levels –ground and second floor- section drawings come into the topic to study the connections between the two levels and highlighting the types of hierarchy for the multiple paths to organize the flows of people inside the building. In the last section the structural geometry is identified through the description of the form and how it responds to the final volumetrical settings. The character of the building through the use of materials and construction techniques inquires from Presence and Materiality. This point of view clarifies multisensory project issues as Dipoli relationship to the dynamic or static character or different spaces inside the building. Once the analysis has been made we will step back to a final return to the building´s exterior to analyze the presence of the building through its scale, colour and textures. This section emphasizes the project´s scale and orientation to find the proper insertion of the building in place. In short, this dissertation has been done by the idea that Pietiläs´special abilities were allowed from a sensitive observation of the program, the creation of a variety of special scales, dynamic circulation and the relating relationship with the project´s location as fundamental design tools. From this aspect, Dipoli could be more usefully framed in the historical context of Nordic and international architecture. The dissertation allows us to better understand the cultural context of the 1960s, in which Dipoli was established since it continues our recent architectural history. The final built form is conceived as an extension of our contemporary world. Therefore the project is assessed through the comparison of the architects´ intentions and the final completed project.

Return of Equity Issues in the Spanish Stock Market from the Investor’s Perspective, during the 1997-2012 Period

Is it profitable for an investor, from a risk-return perspective, to acquire a stake in a quoted company when a capital increase is announced? This paper analyses the return obtained from the investment in equity issues with cash contribution and pre-emptive rights, aimed at funding corporate activities: acquisitions, investments in new facilities and/or strengthening the balance sheet of the companies undertaking the equity issue. During the 16 years covered by the study, the results show a negative average excess risk-adjusted return of almost 5%, from the moment that the equity offer is announced until the completion of the preferential subscription period. To obtain this excess return, the difference between the nominal Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and the expected return, using the CAPM, is computed for each equity issue. The intention behind this method is to eliminate the effects of time and any other possible effect on the stock price during the period of the analysis.The results from this article are consistent with the Pecking Order theory for the Spanish Stock Market also six months after the preferential subscription period. However, there is a positive return after three months.

Quantifying dispersal paths in probabilistic habitat networks: a reply to hock and mumby (2015) and an overview of recent developments and applications

Hock and Mumby (2015) describe an approach to quantify dispersal probabilities along paths in networks of habitat patches. This approach basically consists in determining the most probable (most reliable) path for movement between habitat patches by calculating the product of the dispersal probabilities in each link (step) along the paths in the network. Although the paper by Hock and Mumby (2015) has value and includes interesting analyses (see comments in section 7 below), the approach they describe is not new.

Improving the pass-band return loss in liquid crystal dual-mode bandpass filters by microstrip patch reshaping

In this paper, the design and experimental characterization of a tunable microstrip bandpass filter based on liquid crystal technology are presented. A reshaped microstrip dual-mode filter structure has been used in order to improve the device performance. Specifically, the aim is to increase the pass-band return loss of the filter by narrowing the filter bandwidth. Simulations confirm the improvement of using this new structure, achieving a pass-band return loss increase of 1.5 dB at least. Because of the anisotropic properties of LC molecules, a filter central frequency shift from 4.688 GHz to 5.045 GHz, which means a relative tuning range of 7.3%, is measured when an external AC voltage from 0 Vrms to 15 Vrms is applied to the device.

Desynchronization of cells on the developmental path triggers the formation of spiral waves of cAMP during Dictyostelium aggregation

Whereas it is relatively easy to account for the formation of concentric (target) waves of cAMP in the course of Dictyostelium discoideum aggregation after starvation, the origin of spiral waves remains obscure. We investigate a physiologically plausible mechanism for the spontaneous formation of spiral waves of cAMP in D. discoideum. The scenario relies on the developmental path associated with the continuous changes in the activity of enzymes such as adenylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase observed during the hours that follow starvation. These changes bring the cells successively from a nonexcitable state to an excitable state in which they relay suprathreshold cAMP pulses, and then to autonomous oscillations of cAMP, before the system returns to an excitable state. By analyzing a model for cAMP signaling based on receptor desensitization, we show that the desynchronization of cells on this developmental path triggers the formation of fully developed spirals of cAMP. Developmental paths that do not correspond to the sequence of dynamic transitions no relay-relay-oscillations-relay are less able or fail to give rise to the formation of spirals.

Molecular switch in signal transduction: Reaction paths of the conformational changes in ras p21

Conformational changes in ras p21 triggered by the hydrolysis of GTP play an essential role in the signal transduction pathway. The path for the conformational change is determined by molecular dynamics simulation with a holonomic constraint directing the system from the known GTP-bound structure (with the γ-phosphate removed) to the GDP-bound structure. The simulation is done with a shell of water molecules surrounding the protein. In the switch I region, the side chain of Tyr-32, which undergoes a large displacement, moves through the space between loop 2 and the rest of the protein, rather than on the outside of the protein. As a result, the charged residues Glu-31 and Asp-33, which interact with Raf in the homologous RafRBD–Raps complex, remain exposed during the transition. In the switch II region, the conformational changes of α2 and loop 4 are strongly coupled. A transient hydrogen bonding complex between Arg-68 and Tyr-71 in the switch II region and Glu-37 in switch I region stabilizes the intermediate conformation of α2 and facilitates the unwinding of a helical turn of α2 (residues 66–69), which in turn permits the larger scale motion of loop 4. Hydrogen bond exchange between the protein and solvent molecules is found to be important in the transition. Possible functional implications of the results are discussed.

Co-Permeability of 3H-Labeled Water and 14C-Labeled Organic Acids across Isolated Plant Cuticles1 : Investigating Cuticular Paths of Diffusion and Predicting Cuticular Transpiration

Penetration of 3H-labeled water (3H2O) and the 14C-labeled organic acids benzoic acid ([14C]BA), salicylic acid ([14C]SA), and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ([14C]2,4-D) were measured simultaneously in isolated cuticular membranes of Prunus laurocerasus L., Ginkgo biloba L., and Juglans regia L. For each of the three pairs of compounds (3H2O/[14C]BA, 3H2O/[14C]SA, and 3H2O/[14C]2,4-D) rates of cuticular water penetration were highly correlated with the rates of penetration of the organic acids. Therefore, water and organic acids penetrated the cuticles by the same routes. With the combination 3H2O/[14C]BA, co-permeability was measured with isolated cuticles of nine other plant species. Permeances of 3H2O of all 12 investigated species were highly correlated with the permeances of [14C]BA (r2 = 0.95). Thus, cuticular transpiration can be predicted from BA permeance. The application of this experimental method, together with the established prediction equation, offers the opportunity to answer several important questions about cuticular transport physiology in future investigations.

Analysis of the spectral response of fractal antennas related with its geometry and current paths

Fractal antennas have been proposed to improve the bandwidth of resonant structures and optical antennas. Their multiband characteristics are of interest in radiofrequency and microwave technologies. In this contribution we link the geometry of the current paths built-in the fractal antenna with the spectral response. We have seen that the actual currents owing through the structure are not limited to the portion of the fractal that should be geometrically linked with the signal. This fact strongly depends on the design of the fractal and how the different scales are arranged within the antenna. Some ideas involving materials that could actively respond to the incoming radiation could be of help to spectrally select the response of the multiband design.

The evolutionary paths among galaxy types on the red sequence at 0.3 < Z < 1.5

We have studied the main evolutionary paths among the galaxy types residing on the massive end of the Red Sequence and nearby locations on the Green Valley during the last ∼9 Gyr. The morphological and star formation properties of a sample of these galaxies at 0 . 3 < z < 1 .5 with stellar masses M_∗ > 5 × 10^10 M_⊙ have been analysed. We present direct observational evidence for the first time of the existence of two main evolutionary paths among the different red galaxy types since z ∼ 1 .5, which provide some clues on the nature of the processes that have governed the assembly of present-day massive quiescent galaxies. The results are in excellent agreement with the hierarchical evolutionary framework proposed in the Eliche-Moral et al. (2010) model. Data from SHARDS (one of the ESO/GTC Large Programmes approved in 2009A) will complement and improve the present findings, shedding some light into many of the still unsettled questions concerning the migration of galaxies from the Blue Cloud to the Red Sequence at z < 1 .5.

A Return to Little Things: Stories on Motherhood and Mistakes

A Return to Little Things includes three nonfiction pieces that revolve around the mistakes made by mothers and daughters. The collection investigates the idea that our lives are a sum total of the choices we have made. The essays directly address three specific situations that touch on the themes of motherhood, choices, and the human inclination to recall them with bitterness, and offer proof that time often allows us to move forward to forgiveness. Using humor and acceptance, the narrator is led through a labyrinth of emotions to come to peace with these choices. The stories serve as reminders that there are no mistakes, only lessons, and we must seek to understand them to live happy lives. This manuscript is a work in progress.

The Impact of BIM on the Distribution of Cost and Return on Investment in UK Construction Projects

It has been widely documented that when Building Information Modelling (BIM) is used, there is a shift in effort to the design phase. Little investigation into the impact of this shift in effort has been done and how it impacts on costs. It can be difficult to justify the increased expenditure on BIM in a market that is heavily driven by costs. There are currently studies attempting to quantify the return on investment (ROI) for BIM for which these returns can be seen to balance out the shift in efforts and costs to the design phase. The studies however quantify the ROI based on the individual stakeholder’s investment without consideration for the impact that the use of BIM from their project partners may have on their own profitability. In this study, a questionnaire investigated opinions and experience of construction professionals, representing clients, consultants, designers and contractors, to determine fluctuations in costs by their magnitude and when they occur. These factors were examined more closely by interviewing senior members representing each of the stakeholder categories and comparing their experience in using BIM within environments where their project partners were also using BIM and when they were not. This determined the differences in how the use and the investment in BIM impacts on others and how costs are redistributed. This redistribution is not just through time but also between stakeholders and categories of costs. Some of these cost fluctuations and how the cost of BIM is currently financed are also highlighted in several case studies. The results show that the current distribution of costs set for traditional 2D delivery is hindering the potential success of BIM. There is also evidence that stakeholders who don’t use BIM may benefit financially from the BIM use of others and that collaborative BIM is significantly different to the use of ‘lonely’ BIM in terms of benefits and profitability.