Desenvolupament d'hidrogels superficials que contenen motius d'adhesió cel·lular

Projecte de recerca elaborat a partir d’una estada al Departament d’Enginyeria Química del Massachusetts Institute of Technology entre abril i octubre del 2006. S’ha dissenyat i sintetitzat uns nous films polimèrics, amb aplicacions en l’àmbit de l’enginyeria de teixits, utilitzant la tècnica anomenada iCVD (initiated Chemical Vapor Deposition), prèviament desenvolupada pel grup receptor. Es tracta d’uns hidrogels superficials de gruix controlable, que incorporen un monòmer fluorat, el qual s’havia estudiat extensament en el grup d’origen. Aquest monòmer es caracteritza per reaccionar molt fàcilment amb pèptids, de manera que aquests queden units covalentment a la superfície. Diferents estratègies pel desenvolupament d’aquests copolímers han estat avaluades, tant des del punt de vista purament sintètic com de la pròpia aplicació. Les condicions de polimerització han estat optimitzades i els hidrogels s’han caracteritzat químicament per tècniques espectroscòpiques (FTIR, XPS), i físicament per angle de contacte i el·lipsometria. D’aquesta manera, s’ha estudiat la capacitat dels hidrogels d’absorbir aigua i alhora augmentar el seu gruix, depenent de la quantitat d’agent reticulant introduït i de la incorporació del nou monòmer. A continuació, s’han optimitzat les condicions de reacció d’aquestes superfícies amb pèptids que incorporen una molècula fluorescent, la qual permet detectar fàcilment per microscòpia de fluorescència si la reacció ha tingut lloc. Una vegada la plataforma ha estat posada a punt, s’han iniciat assajos cel·lulars tant amb fibroblasts embriònics de ratolí com amb cèl·lules humanes umbilicals. Els resultats preliminars suggereixen una morfologia diferent de les cèl·lules segons si es cultiven sobre films modificats amb pèptids que promouen l’adhesió cel·lular o sobre les seves seqüències permutades no actives. Però, el més interessant és que també s’han observat certes diferències depenent si els films contenen el component hidrogel o no, fet que suggeriria un paper actiu d’aquests noves superfícies en el comportament cel·lular.

MC1R-dependent, melanin-based colour polymorphism is associated with cell-mediated response in the Eleonora's falcon.

Colour polymorphism in vertebrates is usually under genetic control and may be associated with variation in physiological traits. The melanocortin 1 receptor (Mc1r) has been involved repeatedly in melanin-based pigmentation but it was thought to have few other physiological effects. However, recent pharmacological studies suggest that MC1R could regulate the aspects of immunity. We investigated whether variation at Mc1r underpins plumage colouration in the Eleonora's falcon. We also examined whether nestlings of the different morphs differed in their inflammatory response induced by phytohemagglutinin (PHA). Variation in colouration was due to a deletion of four amino acids at the Mc1r gene. Cellular immune response was morph specific. In males, but not in females, dark nestling mounted a lower PHA response than pale ones. Although correlative, our results raise the neglected possibility that MC1R has pleiotropic effects, suggesting a potential role of immune capacity and pathogen pressure on the maintenance of colour polymorphism in this species.

Single-cell gene-expression profiling reveals qualitatively distinct CD8 T cells elicited by different gene-based vaccines.

CD8 T cells play a key role in mediating protective immunity against selected pathogens after vaccination. Understanding the mechanism of this protection is dependent upon definition of the heterogeneity and complexity of cellular immune responses generated by different vaccines. Here, we identify previously unrecognized subsets of CD8 T cells based upon analysis of gene-expression patterns within single cells and show that they are differentially induced by different vaccines. Three prime-boost vector combinations encoding HIV Env stimulated antigen-specific CD8 T-cell populations of similar magnitude, phenotype, and functionality. Remarkably, however, analysis of single-cell gene-expression profiles enabled discrimination of a majority of central memory (CM) and effector memory (EM) CD8 T cells elicited by the three vaccines. Subsets of T cells could be defined based on their expression of Eomes, Cxcr3, and Ccr7, or Klrk1, Klrg1, and Ccr5 in CM and EM cells, respectively. Of CM cells elicited by DNA prime-recombinant adenoviral (rAd) boost vectors, 67% were Eomes(-) Ccr7(+) Cxcr3(-), in contrast to only 7% and 2% stimulated by rAd5-rAd5 or rAd-LCMV, respectively. Of EM cells elicited by DNA-rAd, 74% were Klrk1(-) Klrg1(-)Ccr5(-) compared with only 26% and 20% for rAd5-rAd5 or rAd5-LCMV. Definition by single-cell gene profiling of specific CM and EM CD8 T-cell subsets that are differentially induced by different gene-based vaccines will facilitate the design and evaluation of vaccines, as well as enable our understanding of mechanisms of protective immunity.

Prospects for a nonliving vaccine against Schistosomiasis based on cell-mediated immune resistance mechanisms

We have designed a vaccine model based on induction of cell-mediated immunity and shown that it protects mice against Schistosoma mansoni infection. Mice are immunized by intradermal injection with schistosome antigens plus BCG. Resistance is dependent on the route of antigen presentation and the adjuvant chosen. The pattern of resistance correlates with sensitization of T lymphocytes for production of gamma interferon, a macrophage activating lymphokine that stimulates the cellular effector mechanism of protection. Purified schistosome paramyosin, a muscle cell component present in soluble parasite antigenic preparations, is immunogenic for T lymphocytes and induces resistance when given intradermally with BCG. It is likely that this protein, and possibly other soluble molecules that are released by the parasites of a challenge infection, induce a cellular inflammatory response resulting in larval trapping and/or killing by activated macrophages. These results verify the feasibility of a vaccine against schistosomiasis based on induction of cell-mediated immune resistance mechanisms.

Role of a mouse monoclonal IgE antibody in passive transfer of immunity to Schistosoma japonicum infection

We have been able to produce a mouse monoclonal IgE antibody specific to an adult worm antigen extracted from Schistosoma japonicum (Sj). The antibody was able to elicit passive cutaneous anaphylaxis in the rat skin against Sj with the highest titer of 1:256,000 but did not cross-react with S. mansoni antigen. The antibody recognized a 97-kDa molecule expressed on the surface of mechanically transformed schistosoma of S. japonicum. Passive transfer of the antibody into mice in the early stage of challenge infection resulted in a partial but significant reduction of recovery of adult worms. Induction of eosinophilia by an oral administration of embryonated eggs of Toxocara canis prior to challenge infection enhanced the reduction.

Extracellular matrix components in peripheral nerve repair: how to affect neural cellular response and nerve regeneration?

Peripheral nerve injury is a serious problem affecting significantly patients' life. Autografts are the "gold standard" used to repair the injury gap, however, only 50% of patients fully recover from the trauma. Artificial conduits are a valid alternative to repairing peripheral nerve. They aim at confining the nerve environment throughout the regeneration process, and providing guidance to axon outgrowth. Biocompatible materials have been carefully designed to reduce inflammation and scar tissue formation, but modifications of the inner lumen are still required in order to optimise the scaffolds. Biomicking the native neural tissue with extracellular matrix fillers or coatings showed great promises in repairing longer gaps and extending cell survival. In addition, extracellular matrix molecules provide a platform to further bind growth factors that can be released in the system over time. Alternatively, conduit fillers can be used for cell transplantation at the injury site, reducing the lag time required for endogenous Schwann cells to proliferate and take part in the regeneration process. This review provides an overview on the importance of extracellular matrix molecules in peripheral nerve repair.

Monoclonal antibodies to murine lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-binding protein (LBP) protect mice from lethal endotoxemia by blocking either the binding of LPS to LBP or the presentation of LPS/LBP complexes to CD14.

Cellular responses to LPS, the major lipid component of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria, are enhanced markedly by the LPS-binding protein (LBP), a plasma protein that transfers LPS to the cell surface CD14 present on cells of the myeloid lineage. LBP has been shown previously to potentiate the host response to LPS. However, experiments performed in mice with a disruption of the LBP gene have yielded discordant results. Whereas one study showed that LBP knockout mice were resistant to endotoxemia, another study did not confirm an important role for LBP in the response of mice challenged in vivo with low doses of LPS. Consequently, we generated rat mAbs to murine LBP to investigate further the contribution of LBP in experimental endotoxemia. Three classes of mAbs were obtained. Class 1 mAbs blocked the binding of LPS to LBP; class 2 mAbs blocked the binding of LPS/LBP complexes to CD14; class 3 mAbs bound LBP but did not suppress LBP activity. In vivo, class 1 and class 2 mAbs suppressed LPS-induced TNF production and protected mice from lethal endotoxemia. These results show that the neutralization of LBP accomplished by blocking either the binding of LPS to LBP or the binding of LPS/LBP complexes to CD14 protects the host from LPS-induced toxicity, confirming that LBP is a critical component of innate immunity.

Superficial and deep changes of cellular mechanical properties following cytoskeleton disassembly.

The cytoskeleton, composed of actin filaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules, is a highly dynamic supramolecular network actively involved in many essential biological mechanisms such as cellular structure, transport, movements, differentiation, and signaling. As a first step to characterize the biophysical changes associated with cytoskeleton functions, we have developed finite elements models of the organization of the cell that has allowed us to interpret atomic force microscopy (AFM) data at a higher resolution than that in previous work. Thus, by assuming that living cells behave mechanically as multilayered structures, we have been able to identify superficial and deep effects that could be related to actin and microtubule disassembly, respectively. In Cos-7 cells, actin destabilization with Cytochalasin D induced a decrease of the visco-elasticity close to the membrane surface, while destabilizing microtubules with Nocodazole produced a stiffness decrease only in deeper parts of the cell. In both cases, these effects were reversible. Cell softening was measurable with AFM at concentrations of the destabilizing agents that did not induce detectable effects on the cytoskeleton network when viewing the cells with fluorescent confocal microscopy. All experimental results could be simulated by our models. This technology opens the door to the study of the biophysical properties of signaling domains extending from the cell surface to deeper parts of the cell.

HARNESSING iNKT CELLS WITH RECOMBINANT CD1d FUSION PROTEINS TO REDIRECT INNATE AND ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY TO THE TUMOR

Les thérapies du cancer, comme la radiothérapie et la chimiothérapie, sont couramment utilisées mais ont de nombreux effets secondaires. Ces thérapies invasives pour le patient nécessitent d'être améliorées et de nombreuses avancées ont été faites afin d'adapter et de personnaliser le traitement du cancer. L'immunothérapie a pour but de renforcer le système immunitaire du patient et de le rediriger de manière spécifique contre la tumeur. Dans notre projet, nous activons les lymphocytes Invariant Natural Killer T (iNKT) afin de mettre en place une immunothérapie innovatrice contre le cancer. Les cellules iNKT sont une unique sous-population de lymphocytes T qui ont la particularité de réunir les propriétés de l'immunité innée ainsi qu'adaptative. En effet, les cellules iNKT expriment à leur surface des molécules présentes aussi sur les cellules tueuses NK, caractéristique de l'immunité innée, ainsi qu'un récepteur de cellules T (TCR) qui représente l'immunité adaptative. Les cellules iNKT reconnaissent avec leur TCR des antigènes présentés par la molécule CD1d. Les antigènes sont des protéines, des polysaccharides ou des lipides reconnus par les cellules du système immunitaire ou les anticorps pour engendrer une réponse immunitaire. Dans le cas des cellules iNKT, l'alpha-galactosylceramide (αGC) est un antigène lipidique fréquemment utilisé dans les études cliniques comme puissant activateur. Après l'activation des cellules iNKT avec l'αGC, celles-ci produisent abondamment et rapidement des cytokines. Ces cytokines sont des molécules agissant comme des signaux activateurs d'autres cellules du système immunitaire telles que les cellules NK et les lymphocytes T. Cependant, les cellules iNKT deviennent anergiques après un seul traitement avec l'αGC c'est à dire qu'elles ne peuvent plus être réactivées, ce qui limite leur utilisation dans l'immunothérapie du cancer. Dans notre groupe, Stirnemann et al ont publié une molécule recombinante innovante, composée de la molécule CD1d soluble et chargée avec le ligand αGC (αGC/sCD1d). Cette protéine est capable d'activer les cellules iNKT tout en évitant l'anergie. Dans le système immunitaire, les anticorps sont indispensables pour combattre une infection bactérienne ou virale. En effet, les anticorps ont la capacité de reconnaître et lier spécifiquement un antigène et permettent l'élimination de la cellule qui exprime cet antigène. Dans le domaine de l'immunothérapie, les anticorps sont utilisés afin de cibler des antigènes présentés seulement par la tumeur. Ce procédé permet de réduire efficacement les effets secondaires lors du traitement du cancer. Nous avons donc fusionné la protéine recombinante αGC/CD1d à un fragment d'anticorps qui reconnaît un antigène spécifique des cellules tumorales. Dans une étude préclinique, nous avons démontré que la protéine αGC/sCD1d avec un fragment d'anticorps dirigé contre la tumeur engendre une meilleure activation des cellules iNKT et entraîne un effet anti-tumeur prolongé. Cet effet anti-tumeur est augmenté comparé à une protéine αGC/CD1d qui ne cible pas la tumeur. Nous avons aussi montré que l'activation des cellules iNKT avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-tumeur améliore l'effet anti- tumoral d'un vaccin pour le cancer. Lors d'expériences in vitro, la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti- tumeur permet aussi d'activer les cellules humaines iNKT et ainsi tuer spécifiquement les cellules tumorales humaines. La protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-tumeur représente une alternative thérapeutique prometteuse dans l'immunothérapie du cancer. - Les cellules Invariant Natural Killer T (iNKT), dont les effets anti-tumoraux ont été démontrés, sont de puissants activateurs des cellules Natural Killer (NK), des cellules dendritiques (DC) et des lymphocytes T. Cependant, une seule injection du ligand de haute affinité alpha-galactosylceramide (αGC) n'induit une forte activation des cellules iNKT que durant une courte période. Celle-ci est alors suivie d'une longue phase d'anergie, limitant ainsi leur utilisation pour la thérapie. Comme alternative prometteuse, nous avons montré que des injections répétées d'αGC chargé sur une protéine recombinante de CD1d soluble (αGC/sCD1d) chez la souris entraînent une activation prolongée des cellules iNKT, associée à une production continue de cytokine. De plus, le maintien de la réactivité des cellules iNKT permet de prolonger l'activité anti-tumorale lorsque la protéine αGC/sCD1d est fusionnée à un fragment d'anticorps (scFv) dirigé contre la tumeur. L'inhibition de la croissance tumorale n'est optimale que lorsque les souris sont traitées avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv ciblant la tumeur, la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv non-appropriée étant moins efficace. Dans le système humain, les protéines recombinantes αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 et anti-CEA sont capables d'activer et de faire proliférer des cellules iNKT à partir de PBMCs issues de donneurs sains. De plus, la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv a la capacité d'activer directement des clones iNKT humains en l'absence de cellules présentatrices d'antigènes (CPA), contrairement au ligand αGC libre. Mais surtout, la lyse des cellules tumorales par les iNKT humaines n'est obtenue que lorsqu'elles sont incubées avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-scFv anti- tumeur. En outre, la redirection de la cytotoxicité des cellules iNKT vers la tumeur est supérieure à celle obtenue avec une stimulation par des CPA chargées avec l'αGC. Afin d'augmenter les effets anti-tumoraux, nous avons exploité la capacité des cellules iNKT à activer l'immunité adaptive. Pour ce faire, nous avons combiné l'immunothérapie NKT/CD1d avec un vaccin anti-tumoral composé d'un peptide OVA. Des effets synergiques ont été obtenus lorsque les traitements avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 étaient associés avec le CpG ODN comme adjuvant pour la vaccination avec le peptide OVA. Ces effets ont été observés à travers l'activation de nombreux lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifique de la tumeur, ainsi que par la forte expansion des cellules NK. Les réponses, innée et adaptive, élevées après le traitement avec la protéine αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 combinée au vaccin OVA/CpG ODN étaient associées à un fort ralentissement de la croissance des tumeurs B16- OVA-HER2. Cet effet anti-tumoral corrèle avec l'enrichissement des lymphocytes T CD8+ spécifiques observé à la tumeur. Afin d'étendre l'application des protéines αGC/sCD1d et d'améliorer leur efficacité, nous avons développé des fusions CD1d alternatives. Premièrement, une protéine αGC/sCD1d dimérique, qui permet d'augmenter l'avidité de la molécule CD1d pour les cellules iNKT. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons fusionné la protéine αGC/sCD1d avec un scFv dirigé contre le récepteur 3 du facteur de croissance pour l'endothélium vasculaire (VEGFR-3), afin de cibler l'environnement de la tumeur. Dans l'ensemble, ces résultats démontrent que la thérapie médiée par la protéine recombinante αGC/sCD1d-scFv est une approche prometteuse pour rediriger l'immunité innée et adaptive vers le site tumoral. - Invariant Natural Killer T cells (iNKT) are potent activators of Natural Killer (NK), dendritic cells (DC) and T lymphocytes, and their anti-tumor activities have been well demonstrated. However, a single injection of the high affinity CD1d ligand alpha-galactosylceramide (αGC) leads to a strong but short-lived iNKT cell activation followed by a phase of long-term anergy, limiting the therapeutic use of this ligand. As a promising alternative, we have demonstrated that when αGC is loaded on recombinant soluble CD1d molecules (αGC/sCD1d), repeated injections in mice led to the sustained iNKT cell activation associated with continued cytokine secretion. Importantly, the retained reactivity of iNKT cell led to prolonged antitumor activity when the αGC/sCD1d was fused to an anti-tumor scFv fragments. Optimal inhibition of tumor growth was obtained only when mice were treated with the tumor-targeted αGC/CD1d-scFv fusion, whereas the irrelevant αGC/CD1d-scFv fusion was less efficient. When tested in a human system, the recombinant αGC/sCD1d-anti-HER2 and -anti-CEA fusion proteins were able to expand iNKT cells from PBMCs of healthy donors. Furthermore, the αGC/sCD1d-scFv fusion had the capacity to directly activate human iNKT cells clones without the presence of antigen-presenting cells (APCs), in contrast to the free αGC ligand. Most importantly, tumor cell killing by human iNKT cells was obtained only when co- incubated with the tumor targeted sCD1d-antitumor scFv, and their direct tumor cytotoxicity was superior to the bystander killing obtained with αGC-loaded APCs stimulation. To further enhance the anti-tumor effects, we exploited the ability of iNKT cells to transactivate the adaptive immunity, by combining the NKT/CD1d immunotherapy with a peptide cancer vaccine. Interestingly, synergistic effects were obtained when the αGC/sCD1d- anti-HER2 fusion treatment was combined with CpG ODN as adjuvant for the OVA peptide vaccine, as seen by higher numbers of activated antigen-specific CD8 T cells and NK cells, as compared to each regimen alone. The increased innate and adaptive immune responses upon combined tumor targeted sCD1d-scFv treatment and OVA/CpG vaccine were associated with a strong delay in B16-OVA-HER2 melanoma tumor growth, which correlated with an enrichment of antigen-specific CD8 cells at the tumor site. In order to extend the application of the CD1d fusion, we designed alternative CD1d fusion proteins. First, a dimeric αGC/sCD1d-Fc fusion, which permits to augment the avidity of the CD1d for iNKT cells and second, an αGC/sCD1d fused to an anti vascular endothelial growth factor receptor-3 (VEGFR-3) scFv, in order to target tumor stroma environment. Altogether, these results demonstrate that the iNKT-mediated immunotherapy via recombinant αGC/sCD1d-scFv fusion is a promising approach to redirect the innate and adaptive antitumor immune response to the tumor site.

How the gut links innate and adaptive immunity.

Mucosal surfaces represent the main sites in which environmental microorganisms and antigens interact with the host. Sentinel cells, including epithelial cells, lumenal macrophages, and intraepithelial dendritic cells, continuously sense the environment and coordinate defenses for the protection of mucosal tissues. The mucosal epithelial cells are crucial actors in coordinating defenses. They sense the outside world and respond to environmental signals by releasing chemokines and cytokines that recruit inflammatory and immune cells to control potential infectious agents and to attract cells able to trigger immune responses. Among immune cells, dendritic cells (DC) play a key role in controlling adaptive immune responses, due to their capacity to internalize foreign materials and to present antigens to naive T and B lymphocytes, locally or in draining organized lymphoid tissues. Immune cells recruited in epithelial tissues can, in turn, act upon the epithelial cells and change their phenotype in a process referred to as epithelial metaplasia.