The informal labour market in India : transitory or permanent employment for migrants?

The informal economy is a very important sector of the Indian economy. The National Council of Applied Economic Research estimates that the informal sector - "unorganised sector" - generates about 62% of GDP and provides for about 55% of total employment (ILO 2002, p. 14). This paper studies the characteristics of the workers in the informal economy and whether internal migrants treat this sector as a temporary location before moving on to the organised or formal sector to improve their lifetime income and living conditions. We limit our study to the Indian urban (non-agricultural) sector and study the characteristics of the household heads that belong to the informal sector (self-employed and informal wage workers) and the formal sector. We find that household heads that are less educated, come from poorer households, and/or are in lower social groups (castes and religions) are more likely to be in the informal sector. In addition, our results show strong evidence that the longer a rural migrant household head has been working in the urban sector, ceteris paribus, the more likely that individual has moved out of the informal wage sector. These results support the hypothesis that, for internal migrants, the informal wage labour market is a stepping stone to a better and more certain life in the formal sector.

Agglomeration effects of informal sector: evidence from Cambodia

The presence of a large informal sector in developing economies poses the question of whether informal activity produces agglomeration externalities. This paper uses data on all the nonfarm establishments and enterprises in Cambodia to estimate the impact of informal agglomeration on the regional economic performance of formal and informal firms. We develop a Bayesian approach for a spatial autoregressive model with an endogenous explanatory variable to address endogeneity and spatial dependence. We find a significantly positive effect of informal agglomeration, where informal firms gain more strongly than formal firms. Calculating the spatial marginal effects of increased agglomeration, we demonstrate that more accessible regions are more likely than less accessible regions to benefit strongly from informal agglomeration.

Impacts of foreign exchange auctions on the informal market rate in Myanmar

Since the abolition of the official peg and the introduction of a managed float in April 2012, the Central Bank of Myanmar has operated the daily two–way auctions of foreign exchange aimed at smoothing exchange rate fluctuations. Despite the reforms to the foreign exchange regime, however, informal trading of foreign exchange remains pervasive. Using the daily informal exchange rate and Central Bank auction data, this study examines the impacts of auctions on the informal market rate. First, a VAR analysis indicates that the official rate did not Granger cause the informal rate. Second, GARCH models indicate that the auctions did not reduce the conditional variance of the informal rate returns. Overall, the auctions have only a quite modest impact on the informal exchange rate.

Determining the effectiveness of three software evaluation techniques through informal aggregation

An accepted fact in software engineering is that software must undergo verification and validation process during development to ascertain and improve its quality level. But there are too many techniques than a single developer could master, yet, it is impossible to be certain that software is free of defects. So, it is crucial for developers to be able to choose from available evaluation techniques, the one most suitable and likely to yield optimum quality results for different products. Though, some knowledge is available on the strengths and weaknesses of the available software quality assurance techniques but not much is known yet on the relationship between different techniques and contextual behavior of the techniques. Objective: This research investigates the effectiveness of two testing techniques ? equivalence class partitioning and decision coverage and one review technique ? code review by abstraction, in terms of their fault detection capability. This will be used to strengthen the practical knowledge available on these techniques.

iCarer Project: Intelligent Care Guidance and Learning Services Platform for Informal Carers of the Elderly

The increasing ageing population is demanding new care approaches to maintain the quality of life of elderly people. Informal carers are becoming crucial agents in the care and support of elderly people, which can lead to those carers suffering from additional stress due to competing priorities with employment or due to lack of knowledge about elderly people?s care needs. Thus, support and stress relief in carers should be a key issue in the home-care process of these older adults. Considering this context, this work presents the iCarer project aimed at developing a personalized and adaptive platform to offer informal carers support by means of monitoring their activities of daily care and psychological state, as well as providing an orientation to help them improve the care provided. Additionally, iCarer will provide e-Learning services and an informal carers learning network. As a result, carers will be able to expand their knowledge, supported by the experience provided by expert counsellors and fellow carers. Additionally, the coordination between formal and informal carers will be improved, offering the informal carers flexibility to organize and combine their assistance and social activities.

Impact of a value chain approach on the sustainability of solid waste management in Mukuru Kwa njenga informal settlements Nairobi, Kenya

En un mundo altamente urbanizado, la gestión de residuos sólidos es un problema primordial en toda ciudad. Las ciudades de paises en desarrollo deben además afrontar retos que no afectan a las ciudades de paises desarrollados. En los paises en desarrollo muchas municipalidades sufren un crecimiento descontrolado de los asentamientos informales sin planificación urbana que hace muy complicada una adecuada gestión de los residuos sólidos urbanos, situación que se agrava al no contar estas con suficientes recursos económicos para llevar a cabo su responsabilidad en cuanto a provisión del sevicio básico de recogida de residuos. La provisión de servicio de recogida de residuos por parte de SHGs (grupos de ayuda comunitarios) en estos asentamientos informales puede ayudar a resolver algunos de estos problemas. Para que esta oportunidad sea completamente explotada, los ingresos de estos grupos deben ser garantizados, teniendo en cuenta que la sostenibilidad de estos grupos depende enteramente de ello. Este estudio pretende averiguar cómo un enfoque de cadena de valor puede mejorar la sostenibilidad de la gestión de residuos sólidos, permitiendo asegurar los ingresos de los recolectores informales de residuos. El estudio propondrá después de analizado el actual sistema, mejoras que permitan desarrollar un medio ambiente saludable en los asentamientos informales donde se desarrolla el estudio. Para alcanzar este objetivo, se ha desarrollado una investigación específica en Nairobi (Kenia) en el asentamiento precario de Mukuru Kwa Njenga, analizando los distintos aspectos relevantes que tienen influencia en una gestión integrada de residuos sólidos y las relaciones entre los distintos actores que tienen influencia en la misma.

Metodología de diseño urbano participativo: mejora participativa integral del asentamiento informal Blikkiesdorp, en Grootfontein, Namibia

Metodología de diseño urbano participativo: mejora participativa integral del asentamiento informal Blikkiesdorp, en Grootfontein, Namibia

Los programas municipales de ocupación guiada: instrumentos preferentes de habitabilidad básica versus la urbanización informal futura. El caso de Trujillo (Perú)

El crecimiento demográfico y el proceso de urbanización que ha experimentado el planeta en el último siglo se ha traducido, en contextos de pobreza, en la generación de tugurios y en el aumento de la población viviendo en condiciones de habitabilidad precaria (HaP) fruto de la urbanización informal. Situación que, según las estimaciones de Naciones Unidas continuará teniendo lugar en las próximas décadas, especialmente en las ciudades de las regiones menos desarrolladas. Este ha sido el problema específico que se ha querido atender con el presente trabajo: la búsqueda de un instrumento urbano que incida en la reducción de las tasas de precariedad habitacional urbana futuras, la búsqueda de instrumentos que eviten que ese aumento de la urbanización se traduzca en aumento de población condenada a vivir en tugurios durante décadas. Dicha búsqueda ha tenido lugar en el marco de la teoría de la Habitabilidad Básica (HaB) desarrollada por el ICHaBCátedra UNESCO de Habitabilidad Básica de la UPM. Una HaB que consiste en la satisfacción de las necesidades fundamentales de habitabilidad pero, a su vez, o más importante aún, en una esperanza de mejora y progreso paulatino de esas condiciones elementales entendida como herramienta de desarrollo y lucha contra la pobreza. Como herramienta básica, no se trata de ofrecer las condiciones ideales, sino de brindar un camino razonable, que se considera posible, para que miles de millones de personas que viven en HaP o parecen condenadas a tener que hacerlo, puedan acceder a mejores condiciones de vida en tiempos más cortos. Entre las políticas habitacionales no convencionales puestas en marcha desde Hábitat I en 1976, las de habilitación urbana progresiva, y más en particular, la Ocupación Guiada, resultan ser en contextos de escasez económica, el mejor instrumento para hacer frente a la urbanización informal, un instrumento paradigmático mínimo preferente de implantación ex novo de HaB. Lo es, por la atención prestada en la elección del suelo y la parcelación, las dos etapas cabecera del proceso, así como por los mecanismos implementados para atender la etapa de urbanización en su fase provisional, y por dejar la última etapa, la de la edificación de las viviendas, en manos de la población. El proceso de urbanización que se favorece es parecido al de los tugurios y ocupaciones ilegales en lo referente a las etapas y mecanismos de crecimiento. Sin embargo, la diferencia está en las condiciones en las que se produce, en los niveles de salubridad y de seguridad, y en la proyección de futuro. El Programa de Ocupación Guiada 'Alto Trujillo' (POG), puesto en marcha por la municipalidad de Trujillo (Perú) entre 1995 y 2006 fue concebido para hacer frente a los procesos de urbanización informal que estaban teniendo lugar en la ciudad y ha demostrado ser un mecanismo adecuado para garantizar el acceso regulado al suelo, las infraestructuras, los servicios básicos y la vivienda en condiciones de fuerte restricción económica mediante un cogestión acertada entre municipalidad, población y demás actores del proceso. El POG eligió un suelo no vulnerable y en continuidad con el tejido urbano, con la parcelación estableció el orden geométrico del asentamiento y reservó los espacios públicos destinados a equipamientos, zonas verdes y viario, y fijó las dimensiones de las parcelas, acompañó a la población en el proceso de ocupación guiada de las mismas, así como en el posterior desarrollo progresivo del asentamiento haciendo una fuerte apuesta por lo público, relegando la construcción de las viviendas al esfuerzo de los pobladores. Los POG municipales resultan ser un instrumento replicable siempre que se den cinco condiciones: la existencia de un marco institucional adecuado que contemple la descentralización de competencias, que haya interés y continuidad política en el gobierno local, acceso a suelo urbano disponible y voluntad de co-gestión con la población. El análisis del POG ha permitido elaborar una propuesta de replicabilidad del POG basada en la experiencia de soluciones ya implementadas, que han sido contrastadas empíricamente y analizadas para aprender de sus fortalezas, oportunidades, debilidades y amenazas, así como de sus aciertos y errores. La estrategia de replicabilidad del POG se plantea como alternativa a la urbanización informal con mecanismos mejorados para que las ciudades se desarrollen siguiendo unos parámetros mínimos de HaB y no a través de asentamientos informales que dificulten el progreso futuro de las familias que los habitan y de las mismas ciudades de las que forman parte. Esta propuesta de replicabilidad, que precisa ser adaptada a cada contexto, tenía una clara vocación: intentar ser instrumento en la región del planeta donde, según las estimaciones, en los próximos treinta años el crecimiento demográfico y el proceso de urbanización serán más fuertes: África Subsahariana. Por ello, con el apoyo de expertos mozambiqueños en temas de habitabilidad, se estudió la replicabilidad en Mozambique incorporando las medidas necesarias que darían respuesta a los condicionantes particulares del país. ABSTRACT The demographic growth and the urbanisation process that the planet has experienced in the last century has turned into the generation of slums and in the increase of population living in conditions of precarious habitability (HaP) result of the informal urbanisation, in contexts of poverty. According to the United Nations estimations, this situation will continue taking place in the next decades, especially in the cities of the least developed regions. The present work has wanted to attend this specific problem by the search of an urban instrument that has an impact on the reduction of the urban future precarious housing rates, a search of instruments that prevent that this urbanisation spread become an increase of population doomed to live in slums during decades. The above mentioned search has taken place in the frame of the Basic Habitability theory (HaB) developed by the ICHaB-Cátedra UNESCO of Basic Habitability of the UPM. HaB consists of the satisfaction of the fundamental habitability needs but, in turn, or still more important, it is the hope of improvement and gradual progress of these elementary conditions. The HaB is understood as a tool of development and fight against poverty. As a basic tool, it does not offer the ideal conditions, but it offers a reasonable way, which is considered to be possible, so that thousands of million persons who live in HaP or that seem to be doomed to have to do it, could gain access to better living conditions in shorter times. Between the non conventional housing policies started up from Habitat I in 1976, those of urban progressive fitting out, and more especially, the Guided Occupation, has turned out to be, in contexts of economic shortage, the best instrument to face the informal urbanisation, a preferential and minimum paradigmatic instrument of ex-novo HaB implementation. It is so due to the attention given to the appropriate site selection and the land allotment, both headboard stages of the process, as well as to the mechanisms implemented to attend the urbanisation stage in its provisional phase, and to leave the last stage, the building process, in population hands. The urbanisation process that is favored is similar to that of the slums and squatting in what concerns the stages and mechanisms of growth. Nevertheless, the difference is in the conditions in which it takes place, in the levels of health and safety, and in the future projection. The Program of Guided Occupation 'Alto Trujillo' (PGO), turned on by the Provincial City Hall of Trujillo (Peru) between 1995 and 2006, was conceived to face the processes of informal urbanisation that took place in the city and it has demonstrated to be a mechanism adapted to guarantee the regulated access to soil, infrastructures, basic services and housing in conditions of strong economic restriction by means of a succeeded co-management between municipality, population and other process actors. The PGO chose a non vulnerable soil in continuity with the urban fabric, with the land allotment established the settlement geometric order, reserved the public spaces allocated for urban facilities, green spaces and streets, and fixed the plot dimensions, accompanied the population in the plot guided occupation process, as well as in the later progressive settlement development betting strongly for the public components, relegating the housing construction to the settlers effort. The municipal PGO turn out to be a replicable instrument under five conditions: the existence of an institutional suitable frame that contemplates the decentralization competitions, interest and political continuity in the local government, access to urban available soil and will of co-management with the population. The PGO analysis has allowed to elaborate a replicability proposal of the PGO based on the experience of the already implemented solutions, which have been empirically confirmed and analyzed to learn of its strengths, opportunities, weaknesses and threats, as well as of its successes and mistakes. The replicability strategy of the PGO is considered an alternative to the informal urbanisation with improved mechanisms in order that the cities can develop following a few HaB's minimal parameters, but not through informal settlements that would make difficult the families future progress and that of the cities where they live. This replicability proposal, that needs to be adapted to every context, had a clear vocation: try to be an instrument in the region of the planet where, according to the estimations, in the next thirty years the demographic growth and the urbanisation process will be stronger: Sub-Saharan Africa. Therefore, with the support of Mozambican experts in habitability topics, the replicability was studied in Mozambique incorporating the necessary measures that would give response to the country's determinants.