The impact of hypoglycaemia on quality of life and related patient-reported outcomes in Type 2 diabetes : a narrative review

As a common side effect of insulin treatment for diabetes, hypoglycaemia is a constant threat and can have far-reaching and potentially devastating consequences, including immediate physical injury as well as more pervasive cognitive, behavioural and emotional effects. Moreover, as a significant limiting factor in achieving optimal glycaemic control, exposure to hypoglycaemia can influence diabetes self-management.

Although hypoglycaemia is known to occur in Type 2 diabetes, its morbidity and impact on the individual are not well recognized. The aim of the current review is to examine published evidence to achieve a synthesis of the scope and significance of the potential detriment caused by hypoglycaemia to individuals with Type 2 diabetes. The implications of these observations for treatment and research have also been considered.

A narrative review was performed of empirical papers published in English since 1966, reporting the effect of hypoglycaemia on quality of life and related outcomes (including generic and diabetes specificquality of life, emotional well-being and health utilities) in Type 2 diabetes.

Research demonstrates the potential impact of hypoglycaemia on the lives of people with Type 2 diabetes, from an association with depressive symptoms and heightened anxiety, to impairment of the ability to drive, work and function in ways that are important for quality of life. Few studies consider hypoglycaemia as an explanatory variable in combination with quality of life or related primary endpoints. As a consequence, there is a pressing need for high-quality research into the overall impact of hypoglycaemia on the lives of people with Type 2 diabetes.

Optical phase change at the interface between mica and thin silver film

We describe a simple experiment which allows unequivocal determination of optical phase change upon reflection of light at the mica-silver interface. While the physical origin of such a phase change at the dielectric-metal interface is well understood to lie in absorption of electromagnetic energy by the metal, inconsistency and ambiguity has persisted as to what its sign and magnitude should be in the field of thin film optics. Most commonly, it has been assigned to be negative for mathematical convenience or just arbitrarily. Our finding shows that with the convention exp(-iωt) for time dependence of the electromagnetic wave, the phase change at the interface between mica and the thin silver film is necessarily positive and its magnitude falls between π and 3π/2 for silver thicknesses down to nanometres. This gives a physically reasonable correspondence to an increased equivalent thickness of the dielectric material, and it clarifies the assignment of interference orders in the harmonic series in a spectrum.

Improving outcomes of preschool language delay in the community : protocol for the Language for Learning randomised controlled trial

Background

Early language delay is a high-prevalence condition of concern to parents and professionals. It may result in lifelong deficits not only in language function, but also in social, emotional/behavioural, academic and economic well-being. Such delays can lead to considerable costs to the individual, the family and to society more widely. The Language for Learning trial tests a population-based intervention in 4 year olds with measured language delay, to determine (1) if it improves language and associated outcomes at ages 5 and 6 years and (2) its cost-effectiveness for families and the health care system.

Methods/Design

A large-scale randomised trial of a year-long intervention targeting preschoolers with language delay, nested within a well-documented, prospective, population-based cohort of 1464 children in Melbourne, Australia. All children received a 1.25-1.5 hour formal language assessment at their 4th birthday. The 200 children with expressive and/or receptive language scores more than 1.25 standard deviations below the mean were randomised into intervention or ‘usual care’ control arms. The 20-session intervention program comprises 18 one-hour home-based therapeutic sessions in three 6-week blocks, an outcome assessment, and a final feed-back/forward planning session. The therapy utilises a ‘step up-step down’ therapeutic approach depending on the child’s language profile, severity and progress, with standardised, manualised activities covering the four language development domains of: vocabulary and grammar; narrative skills; comprehension monitoring; and phonological awareness/pre-literacy skills. Blinded follow-up assessments at ages 5 and 6 years measure the primary outcome of receptive and expressive language, and secondary outcomes of vocabulary, narrative, and phonological skills.

Discussion

A key strength of this robust study is the implementation of a therapeutic framework that provides a standardised yet tailored approach for each child, with a focus on specific language domains known to be associated with later language and literacy. The trial responds to identified evidence gaps, has outcomes of direct relevance to families and the community, includes a well-developed economic analysis, and has the potential to improve long-term consequences of early language delay within a public health framework.

Assessing the impact of diabetes on the quality of life of older adults living in a care home : validation of the ADDQoL senior

Aims  Around a quarter of UK care-home residents have diabetes. Diabetes is known to impact quality of life but existing diabetes-specific quality of life measures are unsuitable for elderly care-home residents. We aimed to develop and evaluate a new measure for use with older adults, to be particularly suitable for use with care-home residents: the Audit of Diabetes-Dependent Quality of Life (ADDQoL) Senior†.

Methods  Content and format changes were made to the 19-domain ADDQoL, informed by related measures for people with visual impairments (12 domain-specific items were retained, four items were revised/added and three items were removed). This revision was modified further following cognitive debriefing interviews with three older adults living in a care home. Psychometric evaluation of the newly developed 17-domain ADDQoL Senior was conducted using data from 90 care-home residents with diabetes who took part in a broader intervention study.

Results  The life domains most impacted by diabetes were ‘independence’ and ‘freedom to eat as I wish’. The ADDQoL Senior demonstrated good factor structure and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.924). Domain scores were, as expected, significantly intercorrelated.

Conclusions  The ADDQoL Senior measures the perceived impact of diabetes on quality of life in older adults, and has been found to be suitable for those living in care homes if administered by interview. The scale has demonstrated acceptability and excellent psychometric properties. It is anticipated that the number of items may be reduced in the future if our current findings can be replicated.

Generic and diabetes-specific well-being in the AT.LANTUS follow-on study : further psychometric validation of the W-BQ28 indicates its utility in research and clinical practice in type 2 diabetes in the UK

Aims  To undertake further psychometric validation of the W-BQ28 to determine its suitability for use in adults with Type 2 diabetes in the UK using data from the AT.LANTUS follow-on study.

Methods  A total of 353 people with Type 2 diabetes participated in the AT.LANTUS Follow-on study, completing measures of well-being (W-BQ28), treatment satisfaction (DTSQ) and self-care (SCI-R). Confirmatory factor analyses was used to confirm the W-BQ28 structure and internal consistency reliability was assessed. Additional statistical tests were conducted to explore convergent, divergent and known-groups validity. Minimal important differences were calculated using distribution and anchor-based techniques.

Results  Structure of the W-BQ28 (seven four-item subscales plus 16-item generic and 12-item diabetes-specific scales) was confirmed (comparative fit index = 0.917, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.057). Internal consistency reliability was satisfactory (four-item subscales: alpha = 0.73–0.90; 12/16-item scales: α = 0.84–0.90). Convergent validity was supported by expected moderate to high correlations (rs = 0.35–0.67) between all W-BQ28 subscales (except Energy); divergent validity was supported by expected low to moderate correlations with treatment satisfaction (rs = −0.03–0.52) and self-care (rs = 0.02–0.22). Known-groups validity was supported with statistically significant differences by sex, age and HbA1c for expected subscales. Minimal important differences were established (range 0.14–2.90).

Conclusions  The W-BQ28 is a valid and reliable measure of generic and diabetes-specific well-being in Type 2 diabetes in the UK. Confirmation of the utility of W-BQ28 (including establishment of minimal important differences) means that its use is indicated in research and clinical practice.

Randomized trial of a population-based, home-delivered intervention for preschool language delay

OBJECTIVE: 

Retinal nerve fibre layer thinning associated with diabetic peripheral neuropathy

Aims
To investigate the relationship between retinal nerve fibre layer thickness and peripheral neuropathy in patients with Type 2 diabetes, particularly in those who are at higher risk of foot ulceration.

Methods
Global and sectoral retinal nerve fibre layer thicknesses were measured at 3.45 mm diameter around the optic nerve head using optical coherence tomography (OCT). The level of neuropathy was assessed in 106 participants (82 with Type 2 diabetes and 24 healthy controls) using the 0–10 neuropathy disability score. Participants were stratified into four neuropathy groups: none (0–2), mild (3–5), moderate (6–8), and severe (9–10). A neuropathy disability score ‡ 6 was used to define those at higher risk of foot ulceration. Multivariable regression analysis was performed to assess the effect of neuropathy disability scores, age, disease duration and retinopathy on RNFL thickness.

Results
Inferior (but not global or other sectoral) retinal nerve fibre layer thinning was associated with higher neuropathy disability scores (P = 0.03). The retinal nerve fibre layer was significantly thinner for the group with neuropathy disability scores ‡ 6 in the inferior quadrant (P < 0.005). Age, duration of disease and retinopathy levels did not significantly influence retinal nerve fibre layer thickness. Control participants did not show any significant differences in thickness measurements from the group with diabetes and no neuropathy (P > 0.24 for global and all sectors).

Conclusions
Inferior quadrant retinal nerve fibre layer thinning is associated with peripheral neuropathy in patients with Type 2 diabetes, and is more pronounced in those at higher risk of foot ulceration.

Estudo dos fatores prognosticos na recorrencia da primeira crise convulsiva na infancia

As crises convulsivas têm sua maior incidência na infância, causando grande ansiedade nos pais e constituindo uma situação freqüente em emergência pediátrica. Estima-se que aproximadamente 4% de todos os indivíduos apresentam uma convulsão durante os primeiros 15 anos de vida. Sabe-se que a recorrên¬cia de crises na infância, após um primeiro episódio, é incerta, e vários estudos têm sido realizados com o intuito de estimar o risco de recorrência de primeira crise, mas os resultados têm-se mostrado conflitantes. A decisão de iniciar o tra¬tamento após a primeira crise é controversa. Este estudo foi elaborado com a finalidade de avaliar a possibilidade de recorrência e de responder questões referentes a fatores prognósticos capa¬zes de auxiliar no manejo da primeira crise na infância. Foi objetivo geral identificar fatores preditivos para a re¬corrência de crises convulsivas na infância. Foram objetivos específicos identifi¬car a participação de fatores desencadeantes agudos e apontar fatores remotos relacionados com a recorrência de crises; estudar a incidência de crises convul¬sivas recorrentes na infância; relacionar o tipo de crise com a possibilidade de re¬corrência; e relacionar os achados eletrencefalográficos com a possibilidade de recorrência. Foram incluídas 136 crianças com idades de 1 mês a 12 anos atendi¬das no setor de Emergência Pediátrica do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre por ocasião da primeira crise convulsiva, com ou sem fator desencadeante, e acompanhadas por 24 meses, sendo vistas na primeira crise e na recorrência e / ou a intervalos de 3, 6, 12, 18 e 24 meses. Foram solicitados eletrencefalogramas após a primeira crise e na recorrência. Foram excluídas crianças que apresenta¬ram crises prévias ao estudo, em uso de anticonvulsivantes ou com quadros ca¬racterísticos de epilepsia ausência, síndrome de West e Lennox - Gastaut.As crianças foram divididas em 2 grupos : Grupo I - com crise única, 77 casos; Grupo II - com recorrência de crises, 44 casos. A média de idade foi de 29 meses e 20 dias, e nos dois grupos houve predominância de faixa etária de 1 a 48 meses. Setenta e três crianças eram do sexo masculino e 48 do sexo femi¬nino, sendo 70 brancas e 51 não-brancas. Quanto ao aspecto sócio-econômico, nos dois grupos houve nítido predomínio de baixa escolaridade dos pais. O estudo teve 11% de perdas. Foi possível concluir que história familiar de crise convulsiva, exis¬tência de fatores desencadeantes na primeira convulsão, tipo de crise, dura¬ção da crise e alterações paroxísticas no eletrencefalograma foram fatores prediti¬vos para a recorrência de crise convulsiva. Os fatores desencadean¬tes agudos, hipertermia e infecção, foram protetores quanto ao risco de recorrên¬cia. Os fatores desencadeantes remotos não tiveram influência na recorrência de crises. A incidência de crises convulsivas recorrentes foi de 36,36% no tempo em que durou o estudo. Quando a primeira crise foi parcial, aumentou em 6 vezes o risco de recorrência. Quando paroxismos focais foram observados no primeiro eletrencefalograma, o risco de recorrência foi 3 vezes maior. Nesta amostra os riscos acumulados para recorrência foram 14,88%, 23,14%, 28,93%, 33,06% e 35,54% para 3, 6, 9, 12 e 15 meses, respectivamente. Embora não es¬tatisticamente significativa, houve forte tendência para recorrência com os seguintes fatores: história familiar positiva de doença neuropsiquiátrica, baixa escolaridade dos pais, baixos índices de Apgar e alterações ao exame físico inicial.