Hispanic incorporation and access to health care in Houston and Harris County, Texas: Adopting an Hispanic perspective to the Aday and Andersen model

This study examines Hispanic levels of incorporation and access to health care. Applying the Aday and Andersen framework for the study of access, the study examined the relationship between two levels of Hispanic incorporation into U.S. society, i.e., mainstream versus ethnic, and potential and realized measures of access to health care. Data for the study were drawn from a 1992 telephone survey of 600 randomly selected Hispanics in Houston and Harris County.^ The hypotheses tested were: (1) Hispanics who are incorporated into mainstream society are more likely to have better potential and realized access to health care than those who are incorporated into ethnic-group enclaves regardless of their socioeconomic status (SES), health status and health needs, and (2) there is no interaction between the levels of incorporation (mainstream or ethnic) and SES, health status, and health needs in predicting potential and realized access.^ The data analysis supported Hypothesis One for the two measures of potential access. The results of bivariate and multiple logistic regression analyses indicated that for Hispanics in Houston and Harris County, being in the "mainstream" incorporation category increased their potential access to care, having "health insurance" and a "regular place of care". For the selected measure of realized access, having a "regular check-up", the analysis did not demonstrate statistically significant differences in having a regular check-up among Hispanics incorporated in the ethnic or mainstream incorporation categories.^ Hypothesis Two, that there is no interaction between the levels of incorporation and socioeconomic characteristics, health status, and health needs in predicting potential and realized access among Hispanics was supported by the data. The results of the logistic regression analysis showed that, after adjusting for socioeconomic status, health status, and health needs, the association between "level of incorporation" and the two measures of potential access ("health insurance" and having a "usual place of care") was not modified by the control variables nor by their interaction with level of incorporation. That is, the effect of incorporation on Hispanics' health insurance coverage, and having a usual place of care, was homogenous across Hispanics with different SES and health status.^ The main research implication of this dissertation is the employment of a theoretical framework for the assessment of cultural factors essential to research on migrating heterogeneous subpopulations. It also provided strategies to solve practical and methodological difficulties in the secondary analyses of data on these populations. ^

MEETING THE NEEDS OF HANDICAPPED CHILDREN: A STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL AND HEALTH CARE SERVICES PROVIDED TO PRE-KINDERGARTEN CHILDREN IN THE HOUSTON INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT EARLY CHILDHOOD PROGRAM FOR THE HANDICAPPED (PARENT SATISFACTION, FUNCTIONAL STATUS, PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT)

The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, P.L. 94-142, created a new challenge for the nation's public school systems. During 1982-1983, a national study, called the "Collaborative Study of Children with Special Needs", was conducted in 5 metropolitan school districts to evaluate the effectiveness of education and health care services of children in kindergarten to 6th grade being provided under P.L. 94-142 programs. This dissertation (the Substudy) was undertaken to augment the findings of the Collaborative Study. The purpose of this study was to develop a database to provide descriptive information on the demographic, service and health characteristics of a small group of 3 and 4 year old handicapped children served by the Houston Independent School District (HISD) during 1982-1983.^ The study involved a stratified sample of 105 three and four year old children divided into 3 groups according to type of handicapping condition.^ The results of the study gave a clearer picture of the demographic characteristics of these Pre-K children. Specifically, sex ratio was approximately one, lower than the national norm. Family and socioeconomic characteristics were assessed.^ The study used an independence/dependence index composed of 11 items on the parent questionnaire to assess the level of functional independence of each child. An association was found between index scores and parent-reported effects of the child on family activity. Parents who said that their child's condition had affected the family's job situation, housing accomodations, vacation plans, marriage, choice of friends and social activities were also more likely to report less independence in the child. In addition, many of the Substudy children had extensive care-taking needs reflected in specific components of the index such as dressing, feeding, toileting or moving about the house.^ In general the results of the Pre-K Substudy indicate that at the early childhood level, the HISD special education program is functioning well in most areas and that parents are very satisfied with the program. (Abstract shortened with permission of author.)^

HEALTH STATUS - HEALTH SERVICE RESOURCES - ECONOSOCIOCULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: IMPLICATIONS FOR HEALTH CARE POLICY IN AFRICA

Rational health services planning requires an examination of the effects of various factors on the health status of a population within a given set of socioeconomic circumstances. The commonly accepted explanations for improved health in the less developed countries (LDCs) are: Health Service Resources available to a population, Environmental and Life conditions, and the Econosociocultural Characteristics of the population.^ In the context of the low economic base from which many LDCs initiate development activities, a strong imperative exists for identifying in which of these major areas public health policy would be most effective in terms of improving health. A new conceptual model is proposed that would be used for future policy analyses to assess what changes in health status of populations in LDCs can be expected as direct functions of increased health service resources, and of improved environmental and econosociocultural conditions.^ While direct policy analysis is ill-advised at this time due to data inadequacy, the model is illustrated using data presently available for twenty-five relatively homogeneous Sub-Sahara African countries. Within the limitations of available data, study findings indicate that while econosociocultural conditions were the most important explanatory factors of the three major independent variables in 1970, health service resources became the most important in 1975. Study findings are inconclusive at this time with regards to the relative contributions of physicians and medical assistants in explaining variances in mortality in these countries.^ Because of the deficient nature of available data, study findings should be interpreted very cautiously. Tests of statistical significance of study findings were by-passed because of their situational technical inappropriateness. This study is significant in being the first of its kind and scope to focus on the Sub-Sahara African region of the World Health Organization, using the Wroclaw Taxonomic Method in conjunction with a stepwise regression technique. It is desirable, therefore, to examine the observed magnitude and directional consistency of all hypothesized relationships, even if evidence is inconclusive. ^

HEALTH CARE COST INCREASES IN METROPOLITAN AREAS

The research project is an extension of the economic theory to the health care field and health care research projects evaluating the influence of demand and supply variables upon medical care inflation. The research tests a model linking the demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of the population, its community case mix, and technology, the prices of goods and services other than medical care, the way its medical services are delivered and the health care resources available to its population to different utilization patterns which, consequently, lead to variations in health care prices among metropolitan areas. The research considers the relationship of changes in community characteristics and resources and medical care inflation.^ The rapidly increasing costs of medical care have been of great concern to the general public, medical profession, and political bodies. Research and analysis of the main factors responsible for the rate of increase of medical care prices is necessary in order to devise appropriate solutions to cope with the problem. An understanding of the community characteristics and resources-medical care costs relationships in the metropolitan areas potentially offers guidance in individual plan and national policy development.^ The research considers 145 factors measuring community milieu (demographic, social, educational, economic, illness level, prices of goods and services other than medical care, hospital supply, physicians resources and techological factors). Through bivariate correlation analysis, the number of variables was reduced to a set of 1 to 4 variables for each cost equation. Two approaches were identified to track inflation in the health care industry. One approach measures costs of production which accounts for price and volume increases. The other approach measures price increases. One general and four specific measures were developed to represent each of the major approaches. The general measure considers the increase on medical care prices as a whole and the specific measures deal with hospital costs and physician's fees. The relationships among changes in community characteristics and resources and health care inflation were analyzed using bivariate correlation and regression analysis methods. It has been concluded that changes in community characteristics and resources are predictive of hospital costs and physician's fees inflation, but are not predictive of increases in medical care prices. These findings provide guidance in the formulation of public policy which could alter the trend of medical care inflation and in the allocation of limited Federal funds.^

FACTORS INFLUENCING ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE AMONG MEXICAN AMERICAN ELDERLY IN TEXAS

Differential access to health care services has been observed among various groups in the United States. Minorities and low-income groups have been especially notable in their decreased access to regular providers of care. This is believed by many to account for some of the higher rates of morbidity and mortality and shorter life expectancies of these groups.^ This research delineated the factors associated with health care access for a particular subset of a minority group, the Mexican American elderly in Texas. Hospital admission and evidence of a regular source of medical care and dental care were chosen as the indicators of access to health care.^ This study analyzed survey interview data from the Texas Study on Aging, 1976. The 597 Mexican American elderly included in this study were representative of the non-institutionalized Mexican American elderly in Texas aged 55 or older.^ The results indicate that hospital admission is not a question of discretion and that common barriers to access, such as income, health insurance, and distance to the nearest facility, are not important in determining hospital admission. Mexican American elderly who need to be hospitalized, as indicated by self-perception of health and disability days, will be hospitalized.^ The results also indicate that having a regular source of medical care is influenced by many factors, some mutable and some immutable. The well-established and immutable factors of age, sex, and need were confirmed. However, the mutable factors such as area of residence and income were also found to have a significant influence. Mexican American elderly living in urban areas had significantly less access to a regular source of medical care as did those who were near the poverty level (as opposed to those who were well below the poverty level). In general, persons claiming a regular source of medical care were more likely to be women, persons who had many health needs, were near the poverty level, lived in urban areas, and had extensive social support systems.^ Persons claiming a regular source of dental care tended to be more advantaged. They had more education, a more extensive informal social support network, higher income, and were generally younger and in better health. They were also more likely to have private health insurance. . . . (Author's abstract exceeds stipulated maximum length. Discontinued here with permission of author.) UMI ^

Assessing the impact of leadership on nurse job satisfaction and the desire for unionization in health care settings

This dissertation focuses on the leadership styles of managers, the impact these leadership styles have on the job satisfaction of staff nurses, and the proclivity of nurses to consider unionization. The aims of the dissertation include conducting a literature review on topics of leadership style, job satisfaction, and unionization; identifying and elucidating pertinent constructs with respect to shared interrelationships and how they could be measured; and developing a means of assessing if and to what extent transformational and transactional leadership styles affect nurse proclivity to unionize.^ The instrumentation selected includes the Multifactor Leadership Survey, Job Satisfaction Survey, and a newly created Union Preference Survey. Each survey instrument was evaluated as to its appropriateness to administer at a non-consultant level within a health care facility. Options other than self-administering the survey instruments include online access for participants, which provides confidentiality and encourages more responses. ^ The next part of the dissertation is a plan for health care facilities to use the survey tool by administering it themselves. The plan provides a general description of the survey tool, administering the instrument, rating the instrument, and leadership development. Integration of the three surveys is presented in a non-statistical format by coordinating the results of the three survey instrument responses. Recommendations are presented on how to improve leadership development warranted for improvement.^ The conclusions reached are that nurses’ preference for unions is influenced by the leadership style of direct report managers, as rated by staff nurses, and the nurses’ job satisfaction, which is in turn in part dependent on their managers’ leadership style. Thus, changes in leadership style can have a profound impact on nurse job satisfaction and on nurses’ preference for unionization.^

Use of intranet and other interventions to increase influenza vaccination among health care workers

Influenza (the flu) is a serious respiratory illness that can cause severe complications, often leading to hospitalization and even death. Influenza epidemics occur in most countries every year, usually during the winter months. Despite recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and efforts by health care institutions across the United States, influenza vaccination rates among health care workers in the United States remain low. How to increase the number of vaccinated health care workers is an important public health question and is examined in two journal articles included here. ^ The first journal article evaluates the effectiveness of an Intranet intervention in increasing the proportion of health care workers (HCWs) who received influenza vaccination. Hospital employees were required go to the hospital's Intranet and select "vaccine received," "contraindicated," or "declined" from the online questionnaire. Declining employees automatically received an online pop-up window with education about vaccination; managers were provided feedback on employees' participation rates via e-mail messages. Employees were reminded of the Intranet requirement in articles in the employee newsletter and on the hospital's Intranet. Reminders about the Intranet questionnaire were provided through managers and newsletters to the HCWs. Fewer than half the employees (43.7%) completed the online questionnaire. Yet the hospital witnessed a statistically significant increase in the percentage of employees who received the flu vaccine at the hospital – 48.5% in the 2008-09 season as compared to 36.5%, 38.5% and 29.8% in the previous three years (P < 0.05). ^ The second article assesses current interventions employed by hospitals, health systems and nursing homes to determine which policies have been the most effective in boosting vaccination rates among American health care workers. A systematic review of research published between January 1994 and March 2010 suggests that education is necessary but not usually sufficient to increase vaccine uptake. Education about the flu and flu vaccines is most effective when complemented with easy access and making the vaccine free, although this combination may not be sufficient to achieve the desired vaccination levels among HCWs. The findings point toward adding incentives for HCWs to get vaccinated and requiring them to record their vaccination status on a declination/consent form – either written or electronic. ^ Based on these findings, American health care organizations, such as hospitals, nursing homes, and long-term care facilities, should consider using online declination forms as a method for increasing influenza vaccination rates among their employees. These online forms should be used in conjunction with other policies, including free vaccine, mobile distribution and incentives. ^ To further spur health care organizations to adopt policies and practices that will raise influenza vaccination rates among employees, The Joint Commission – an independent, not-for- profit organization that accredits and certifies more than 17,000 health care organizations and programs in the United States – should consider altering its standards. Currently, The Joint Commission does not require signed declination forms from employees who eschew vaccination; it only echoes the CDC's recommendations: "Health care facilities should require personnel who refuse vaccination to complete a declination form." Because participation in Joint Commission accreditation is required for Medicare reimbursement, action taken by the Joint Commission to require interventions such as mandatory declination/consent forms might result in immediate action by health care organizations to follow these new standards and lead to higher vaccination rates among HCWs.^ 1“Frequently Asked Questions for H1N1 and Seasonal Influenza.” The Joint Commission - Infection Control: http://www.jointcommission.org/PatientSafety/InfectionControl/h1n1_faq.htm. ^

Gender disparities in utilization, unmet need and expenditure for mental health care

Objectives: To compare mental health care utilization regarding the source, types, and intensity of mental health services received, unmet need for services, and out of pocket cost among non-institutionalized psychologically distressed women and men. ^ Method: Cross-sectional data for 19,325 non-institutionalized mentally distressed adult respondents to the “The National Survey on Drug Use and Health” (NSDUH), for the years 2006 -2008, representing over twenty-nine millions U.S. adults was analyzed. To assess the relative odds for women compared to men, logistic regression analysis was used for source of service, for types of barriers, for unmet need and cost; zero inflated negative binomial regression for intensity of utilization; and ordinal logistic regression analysis for quantifying out-of-pocket expenditure. ^ Results: Overall, 43% of mentally distressed adults utilized a form of mental health treatment; representing 12.6 million U.S psychologically distressed adults. Females utilized more mental health care compared to males in the previous 12 months (OR: 1. 70; 95% CI: 1.54, 1.83). Similarly, females were 54% more likely to get help for psychological distress in an outpatient setting and females were associated with an increased probability of using medication for mental distress (OR: 1.72; 95% CI: 1.63, 1.98). Women were 1.25 times likelier to visit a mental health center (specialty care) than men. ^ Females were positively associated with unmet needs (OR: 1.50; 95% CI: 1.29, 1.75) after taking into account predisposing, enabling, and need (PEN) characteristics. Women with perceived unmet needs were 23% (OR: 0.77; 95% CI: 0.59, 0.99) less likely than men to report societal accommodation (stigma) as a barrier to mental health care. At any given cutoff point, women were 1.74 times likelier to be in the higher payment categories for inpatient out of pocket cost when other variables in the model are held constant. Conclusions: Women utilize more specialty mental healthcare, report more unmet need, and pay more inpatient out of pocket costs than men. These gender disparities exist even after controlling for predisposing, enabling, and need variables. Creating policies that not only provide mental health care access but also de-stigmatize mental illness will bring us one step closer to eliminating gender disparities in mental health care.^

Economic evaluation of latent tuberculosis infection screening among health care workers in Houston

Since interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) were introduced in the 2000's, tuberculin skin testing (TST) and IGRAs have been used in various latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) screening settings. IGRAs are laboratory-based tests and are considered not to be affected by previous Bacille de Calmette et Guérin (BCG) vaccination; however, they are more costly when compared directly with TST, which does not require specimen processing in a laboratory. This study aimed to examine TST and two types of IGRAs, QuantiFERON-TB Gold in Tube (QFT-GIT) and T-SPOT. TB (TSPOT), from an economic viewpoint. Firstly, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify cost related analyses of LTBI screening. Secondly, specific cost information detailing each test's items and labor was collected from an LTBI screening program of health care workers in Houston, and the cost of each test was computed. Thirdly, using the computed cost estimate of each test, cost-effectiveness analyses were conducted to compare TST and IGRAs.^ A literature search showed that a limited number of studies have been conducted, but the IGRA's economic advantages were common among studies. Cost analyses showed that IGRAs were much more costly than TST. The results were consistent with previous studies. In cost-effectiveness analyses, where test cost and consequential TB-related cost were considered, IGRAs showed variable advantages over TST depending on the targeted population. When only non BCG-vaccinated people were considered, TST was the least costly option among the three tests. On the other hand, when only BCG-vaccinated people were considered, IGRAs were less costly options. These results were mostly consistent even with varying assumption parameters.^ IGRAs can be more costly than TST, but their economic disadvantages are alleviated when the target population was BCG-vaccinated. Based on current knowledge, IGRAs may be recommended in a population where the BCG history is mixed. Additional studies are needed to better understand IGRA's reliability among low-incidence and low-risk populations in which background TB prevalence is low.^

Measuring value in cancer-related health care: A case study in head and neck cancer

In the current climate of escalating health care costs, defining value and accurately measuring it are two critical issues affecting not only the future of cancer care in particular but also the future of health care in general. Specifically, measuring and improving value in cancer-related health care are critical for continued advancements in research, management, and overall delivery of care. However, in oncology, most of this research has focused on value as it relates to insurance industry and payment reform, with little attention paid to value as the output of clinical interventions that encompass integrated clinical teams focusing on the entire cycle of care and measuring objective outcomes that are most relevant to patients. ^ In this study, patient-centered value was defined as health outcomes achieved per dollar spent, and calculated using objective functional outcomes and total care costs. The analytic sample comprised patients diagnosed with three common head and neck cancers—cancer of the larynx, oral cavity, and oropharynx—who were treated in an integrated tertiary care center over an approximately 10-year period. The results of this study provide initial empirical data that can be used to assess and ultimately to help improve the quality and value of head and neck cancer care, and more importantly they can be used by patients and clinicians to make better-informed decisions about care, particularly what therapeutic services and outcomes matter the most to patients.^

Shifting the focus: Addressing breast cancer disparities at the health care organization level

The purpose of this study was to understand the scope of breast cancer disparities within the Texas Medical Center. The goal was to increase the awareness of breast cancer disparities at the health care organization level, and to foster the development of organizational interventions to reduce breast cancer disparities. The study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. Are hospitals in the Texas Medical Center implementing interventions to reduce breast cancer disparities? 2. What are their interventions for reducing the effects of non clinical factors on breast cancer treatment disparities? 3. What are their measures for monitoring, continuously improving, and evaluating the success of their interventions? ^ This research project was designed as a mixed methods case study. Quantitative breast cancer data for the years 2000-2009 was obtained from the Texas Cancer Registry (TCR). Qualitative data collection and analysis was done by conducting a total of 20 semi-structured interviews of administrators, physicians and nurses at five hospitals (A, B, C, D and E) in the Texas Medical Center (TMC). For quantitative analysis, the study was limited to early stage breast cancer patients: local and regional. The dependent variable was receipt of standard treatment: Surgery (Yes/No), BCS vs Mastectomy, Chemotherapy (Yes/No) and Radiation after BCS (Yes/No). The main independent variable was race: non-Hispanic White (NHW) , non-Hispanic Black (NHB), and Hispanic. Other covariates included age at diagnosis, diagnosis date, percent poverty, grade, stage, and regional nodes. Multivariate logistic regression was used to test the adjusted association between receipt of standard care and race. Qualitative data was analyzed with the Atlas.ti7 software (ATLAS.ti GmbH, Berlin). ^ Though there were significant differences by race for all dependent variables when the data was analyzed as a single group of all hospitals; at the level of the individual hospitals the results were not consistent by race/ethnicity across all dependent variables for hospitals A, B, and E. There were no racial differences in adjusted analysis for receipt of chemotherapy for the individual hospitals of interest in this study. For hospitals C and D, no racial disparities in treatment was observed in adjusted multivariable analysis. All organizations in this study were aware of the body of research which shows that there are disparities in breast cancer outcomes for patient population groups. However, qualitative data analysis found that there were differences in interest among hospitals in addressing breast cancer disparities in their patient population groups. Some organizations were actively implementing directed measures to reduce the breast cancer disparity gap in outcomes for patients, and others were not. Despite the differences in levels of interest, quantitative data analysis showed that organizations in the Texas Medical Center were making progress in reducing the burden of breast cancer disparities in the patient populations being served.^