Chapter 11: Human activities and ecosystem service use: impacts and trade-offs

Ecosystem services provided by the marine environment are fundamental to human health and well-being. Despite this, many marine systems are being degraded to an extent that may reduce their capacity to provide these ecosystem services. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that promotes conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, 2000). Its application to marine management and spatial planning has been proposed as a means of maintaining the economic and social value of the oceans, not only in the present but for generations to come. Characterising the susceptibility of services (and combinations of services) to particular human activities based on knowledge of impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning (as described in preceding chapters) is a challenge for future management of the oceans. In this chapter, we highlight the existing, but limited knowledge of how ecosystem services may be impacted by different human activities. We discuss how impacts on one service can impact multiple services and explore how the impacts on services can vary both spatially and temporally and according to context. We focus particularly on the effects on ecosystem services of activities whose impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have already been considered in previous chapters. Some of these activities are associated with poor management of ecosystem benefits, for example, from provisioning services (aquaculture and fisheries), or with excessive input of wastes, fertilisers and contaminants into the system overburdening the waste treatment and assimilation services. Other impacts are associated with the construction of structures or use of space designed to generate benefits from environmental services such as the presence of water as a carrier for shipping, or sources of wind, wave and tidal power. We discuss the trade-offs that are made, consciously or otherwise, between different ecosystem services, which arise from human activities to optimise or manage specific ecosystem services.

Validations and descriptions of European syntaxa of vegetation dominated by lichens, bryophytes and algae

Fourty-two high-rank syntaxa and seven associations of the thallophyte system of syntaxa are either described as new or validated in this paper. Among those, there are the following nine classes: Aspicilietea candidae, Caulerpetea racemosae, Desmococcetea olivacei, Entophysalidetea deustae, Gloeocapsetea sanguineae, Mesotaenietea berggrenii, Naviculetea gregariae, Porpidietea zeoroidis, Roccelletea phycopsis. Eleven orders and ten alliances as well as three associations are described or validated: the Aspicilietalia verruculosae (incl. Aspicilion mashiginensis and Teloschistion contortuplicati), the Caulerpetalia racemosae (incl. Caulerpion racemosae), the Desmococcetalia olivacei (incl. Desmococcion olivacei), the Dirinetalia massiliensis, the Fucetalia vesiculosi (incl. Ascophyllion nodosi), the Gloeocapsetalia sanguineae, the Lecideetalia confluescentis (incl. Lecideion confluescentis), the Mesotaenietalia berggrenii (incl. Mesotaenion berggrenii, Mesotaenietum berggrenii and Chloromonadetum nivalis), the Naviculetalia gregariae (incl. Oscillatorion limosae and Oscillatorietum limosae), the Porpidietalia zeoroidis (incl. Porpidion zeoroidis), and the Roccelletalia fuciformis (incl. Paralecanographion grumulosae). Further, five orders, seven alliances and four associations, classified in known classes, were described as well. These include: the Bacidinetalia phacodis, the Agonimion octosporae and the Dendrographetalia decolorantis (all in the Arthonio radiatae-Lecidelletea elaeochromae), the Staurothelion solventis (in the Aspicilietea lacustris), the Pediastro duplicis-Scenedesmion quadricaudae and the Pediastro duplicis-Scenedesmetum quadricaudae (both in the Asterionelletea formosae), the Peccanion coralloidis and the Peltuletalia euplocae (both in the Collematetea cristati), the Laminarion hyperboreae, the Saccorhizo polyschidi-Laminarietum and the Alario esculenti-Himanthalietum elongatae (all in the Cystoseiretea crinitae), the Delesserietalia sanguinei, the Delesserion sanguinei and the Delesserietum sanguineae (all in the Lithophylletea soluti), as well as the the Rinodino confragosae-Rusavskietalia elegantis and the Rhizocarpo geographici-Rusavskion elegantis (both in the Rhizocarpetea geographici).

Latin American migration in the central area of Iquique: New fronts of residential location and unequal forms of access to housing

Historically the central area of the city of Iquique has been established as residential space migrants choosing from different backgrounds , however since the late 2000s migration flows are diversified being mostly Latin American immigrants who live in precarious conditions , accessing tugurizados properties , deteriorated in an increasingly growing informal market. The results presented here are derived from quantitative residential location of migrants , as well as the implementation of 13 in-depth interviews . From these results emerge that Latin American migrants access to the same places where once lived internal migrants, however they inhabit a restrictive market , uneven and inadequate living conditions lease, but allows them to articulate residence and proximity to industrial networks , social and popular trade.

Dispersal mode and assessments of recovery on the shores of Gruinard, the 'anthrax island'

Formaldehyde run-off was an unintended impact of the anthrax decontamination procedure on the island of Gruinard. The death of intertidal organisms was observed where formaldehyde reached the shore during 1986. The extent to which shores on Gruinard have recovered was assessed with survey work in 2000. Recovery estimates were based on the hypothesis that the process of recolonization is partly dependent on species' dispersal capability. Underdevelopment of the assemblage of species lacking planktonic dispersal stages (direct developers) is therefore evidence that the process of recolonization is ongoing, rather than complete. A novel multivariate test showed that, when comparing quadrats from Gruinard and nearby mainland shores, assemblages of direct developing molluscs were significantly more distinct than assemblages of molluscs with planktonic dispersal stages. The average densities of species with direct development were generally lower on Gruinard than on mainland shores. While some species with direct development have similar densities on Gruinard and on the surrounding shores, the recovery of the overall assemblage was still incomplete after 14 years. In contrast, the harvested species, Littorina littorea, appeared to benefit from the absence of humans visiting Gruinard's shores. Populations of L. littorea on Gruinard contained significantly higher proportions of large individuals. Depending on the dispersal capabilities of different species, Gruinard is either still in recovery or acts as a reserve.

Phenotypic diversity amongst strains of Pleurotus sajor-caju: implications for cultivation in and environments

In arid regions, biodiversity and biomass are limited by water availability, and this problem has been compounded by desertification associated with global climate change. The saprotrophic macrofungi that are indigenous to hot subtropical and tropical regions, such as Pleurotus spp., can play key roles in water sequestration, nutrient cycling, human nutrition, and bioremediation of waste materials. We studied 15 strains of Pleurotus sajor-caju, a widespread and phenotypically-diverse species, to establish variability in growth response and primordium development over a range of stress parameters: osmotic potential (-0.5 to -5 MPa), temperature (5-40 degrees C) and pH (2-12). The initiation of primordia precedes basidiome production and therefore represents a key stage in bioremediation strategies and fungi-driven nutrient cycles. Primordia were produced at low pH (4-6), at suboptimal growth temperatures (<or =25 degrees C), and under moderate water stress (-0.5 to -3.5 MPa). Although the growth windows for different strains were similar, their maximum growth rates and the optimum conditions for growth varied. We discuss the phenotypic diversity of Pleurotus strains and discuss their potential for cultivation, bioremediation and ecological regeneration.

Bio-folio: applying portfolio theory to biodiversity

Genes, species and ecosystems are often considered to be assets. The need to ensure a sufficient diversity of this asset is being increasingly recognised today. Asset managers in banks and insurance companies face a similar challenge. They are asked to manage the assets of their investors by constructing efficient portfolios. They deliberately make use of a phenomenon observed in the formation of portfolios: returns are additive, while risks diversify. This phenomenon and its implications are at the heart of portfolio theory. Portfolio theory, like few other economic theories, has dramatically transformed the practical work of banks and insurance companies. Before portfolio theory was developed about 50 years ago, asset managers were confronted with a situation similar to the situation the research on biodiversity faces today. While the need for diversification was generally accepted, a concept that linked risk and return on a portfolio level and showed the value of diversification was missing. Portfolio theory has closed this gap. This article first explains the fundamentals of portfolio theory and transfers it to biodiversity. A large part of this article is then dedicated to some of the implications portfolio theory has for the valuation and management of biodiversity. The last section introduces three development openings for further research.

An efficient neural network approach for nanoscale FinFET modelling and circuit simulation

The present paper demonstrates the suitability of artificial neural network (ANN) for modelling of a FinFET in nano-circuit simulation. The FinFET used in this work is designed using careful engineering of source-drain extension, which simultaneously improves maximum frequency of oscillation f(max) because of lower gate to drain capacitance, and intrinsic gain A(V0) = g(m)/g(ds), due to lower output conductance g(ds). The framework for the ANN-based FinFET model is a common source equivalent circuit, where the dependence of intrinsic capacitances, resistances and dc drain current I-d on drain-source V-ds and gate-source V-gs is derived by a simple two-layered neural network architecture. All extrinsic components of the FinFET model are treated as bias independent. The model was implemented in a circuit simulator and verified by its ability to generate accurate response to excitations not used during training. The model was used to design a low-noise amplifier. At low power (J(ds) similar to 10 mu A/mu m) improvement was observed in both third-order-intercept IIP3 (similar to 10 dBm) and intrinsic gain A(V0) (similar to 20 dB), compared to a comparable bulk MOSFET with similar effective channel length. This is attributed to higher ratio of first-order to third-order derivative of I-d with respect to gate voltage and lower g(ds), in FinFET compared to bulk MOSFET. Copyright (C) 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Tentacular diversity in deep-sea deposit-feeding holothurians: implications for biodiversity in the deep sea

The tentacles of deep-sea holothurians show a wide range of morphological diversity. The present paper examines gross tentacle morphology in surface deposit feeding holothurians from a range of bathymetric depths. Species studied included the elasipods: Oneirophanta mutabilis, Psychropotes longicauda and Benthogone rosea and the aspidochirotids: Paroriza prouhoi, Pseudostichopus sp., Bathyplotes natans and Paroriza pallens. The sympatric abyssal species Oneirophanta mutabilis, Psychropotes longicauda and Pseudostichopus sp. show subtle differences in diet and the structure and filling patterns of the gut that suggest differences in feeding strategies which may represent one mechanism to overcome competition for food resources in an environment where nutrient resources are considered to be, at least periodically, limiting. Interspecific differences in tentacle functional morphology and digestive strategies, which reflects taxonomic diversity could be explained in terms of Sanders'; Stability–Time Hypothesis. Since different tentacle types will turn over sediments to different extents, their impact on sedimentary communities will be enormous so that high diversity in meiofaunal communities may be explained most simply by Dayton and Hessler's Biological Disturbance Hypothesis.

The relationship between agricultural intensification and biological control: experimental tests across Europe

Agricultural intensification can affect biodiversity and related ecosystem services such as biological control, but large-scale experimental evidence is missing. We examined aphid pest populations in cereal fields under experimentally reduced densities of (1) ground-dwelling predators (-G), (2) vegetation-dwelling predators and parasitoids (-V), (3) a combination of (1) and (2) (-G-V),compared with open-fields (control), in contrasting landscapes with low vs. high levels of agricultural intensification (AI), and in five European regions. Aphid populations were 28%, 97%, and 199% higher in -G, -V, and -G -V treatments, respectively, compared to the open fields, indicating synergistic effects of both natural-enemy groups. Enhanced parasitoid : host and predator : prey ratios were related to reduced aphid population density and population growth. The relative importance of parasitoids and vegetation-dwelling predators greatly differed among European regions, and agricultural intensification affected biological control and aphid density only in some regions. This shows a changing role of species group identity in diverse enemy communities and a need to consider region-specific landscape management.

Manipulating Interaction Strengths and the Consequences for Trivariate Patterns in a Marine Food Web

We are experiencing a global extinction crisis as a result of climate change and human-induced alteration of natural habitats, with large predators at high trophic levels in food webs being particularly vulnerable. Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of food web data that can be used to assess how species extinctions alter the structure and stability of temporally and spatially replicated networks. We established a series of large experimental mesocosms in a shallow subtidal benthic marine system and constructed food webs for each replicate. After 6 months of community assembly, we removed large predators from the core communities of 20 experimental food webs, based on the strength of their trophic interactions, and monitored the changes in the networks' structure and stability over an 8-month period. Our analyses revealed the importance of allometric relationships and size-structuring in natural communities as a means of preserving food web structure and sustainability, despite significant changes in the diversity, stability and productivity of the system.

Globalization, Police Reform and Development; Doing it the Western Way?

Under what conditions does successful police reform take place? Can democratic forms of policing exist within undemocratic state structures? What are the motives of donor and recipient nations, and can the norms of global civil society be cultivated in order to promote human rights, democratic governance, and fair and accountable policing? These questions are addressed in this volume, which presents a unique examination of Western-led police reform efforts by theoretically linking neoliberal globalization, police reform and development. The authors present seven country case studies based on this theoretical approach (Afghanistan, Brazil, Iraq, Northern Ireland, South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, and Turkey) and assess the prospects for successful police reform in a global context.