Diversité des organismes endophytes dans les racines de plantes poussant en milieu contaminé en hydrocarbures

Les champignons endophytes sont des organismes qui vivent à l’intérieur de plantes sans causer de symptômes de maladie apparents. Ils sont trouvés dans virtuellement toutes plante, et la nature des interactions peut aller de mutualiste à pathogène dépendant des conditions. La diversité et la structure des communautés des champignons endophytes dans les plantes poussant en milieu extrêmement pollué, ainsi que leur rôle potentiel pour améliorer la phytorémédiation, demeurent peu compris. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes intéressés aux communautés de champignons endophytes de racines de deux espèces de plantes (Eleocharis erythropoda et Populus sp.). Ces espèces poussaient de manière spontanée dans trois bassins de sédimentation d’un ancienne usine pétro-chimique ayant des niveaux de contaminations différents, en utilisant à la fois une approche d’isolation d’organisme ainsi que des analyses de pyroséquençage de l’ITS d’ADN ribosomal. Nos résultats indiquent que les niveaux de contamination ont un effet significatif sur la composition taxonomique des champignons endophytes des racines de E. erythropoda. Une majorité des données de séquences appartiennent à la classe des Dothideomycetes dans les échantillons de forte concentration en hydrocarbures pétroliers, dont une majorité appartient au genre Alternaria. La comparaison des données d’isolation et de pyroséquençage suggère que l’isolation de souches ne permet pas l’obtention des souches les plus représentées dans les données de pyroséquençage. Ces résultats pourront potentiellement aider à l’élaboration de stratégies pour améliorer la phytorémédiation en utilisant les champignons endophytes.

Contribution des légumineuses, des champignons endophytes et mycorhiziens dans la nutrition azotée des prairies indigènes semi-arides

Les prairies indigènes présentent une source importante d'alimentation pour le pâturage du bétail dans les prairies Canadiennes semi-arides. L'addition de légumineuses fixatrices d'azote et de phosphore dans les prairies indigènes peut améliorer la productivité et la valeur nutritive de fourrage. Ces pratiques peuvent induire des modifications de la structure et de la diversité des communautés fongiques du sol, ce qui peut en retour avoir un impact sur la production et le contenu nutritionnel du fourrage. L’objectif de cette étude était de développer un système de pâturage à bas niveau d’intrants, productif, autonome et durable. À court terme, nous voulions 1) déterminer l'effet des légumineuses (Medicago sativa, une légumineuse cultivée ou Dalea purpurea, une légumineuse indigène) et la fertilité en phosphore du sol sur la productivité et la valeur nutritive des graminées indigènes, comparées avec celles de la graminée introduite Bromus biebersteinii en mélange avec le M. sativa, 2) identifier l'effet de ces pratiques sur la diversité et la structure des communautés des champignons mycorhiziens à arbuscules (CMA) et des champignons totaux, 3) identifier l'effet des légumineuses et des CMA sur les interactions compétitives entre les graminées de saison fraîche et les graminées de saison chaude. Les expériences menées au champ ont montré que M. sativa améliorait les teneurs en azote et en phosphore des graminées indigènes au début de l'été, ainsi que la teneur en azote de la graminée de saison chaude Bouteloua gracilis à la fin de l'été de l'année sèche 2009. Par contre, la fertilité en phosphore du sol n'ait pas affecté la productivité des plantes. D'autre part, l'inclusion des légumineuses augmentait la diversité des CMA dans le mélange de graminées indigènes. Cette modification présentait des corrélations positives avec la productivité et la quantité totale d'azote chez le M. sativa et avec la teneur en phosphore des graminées indigènes, au début de l'été. La structure des communautés de champignons totaux était influencée par l'interaction entre le mélange des espèces et la fertilité en phosphore du sol seulement en 2008 (année humide). Cet effet pourrait être lié en partie avec la productivité des plantes et l'humidité du sol. Les expériences menées en chambre de culture ont montré que les CMA peuvent favoriser la productivité des graminées de saison chaude au détriment des graminées de saison fraîche. En effet, Glomus cubense augmentait la productivité de la graminée de saison chaude B. gracilis, en présence de M. sativa. Cet effet pourrait être associé à l’effet négatif du G. cubense sur la fixation de l’azote par le M. sativa et à la diminution de l’efficacité d’utilisation de l'azote de certaines graminées de saison fraîche résultant en une augmentation de la disponibilité de l'azote pour B. gracilis. Par contre, le Glomus sp. augmentait la biomasse de Schizachyrium scoparium, autre graminée de saison chaude, en absence de légumineuse. Ce phénomène pourrait être attribuable à une amélioration de l’efficacité d’utilisation du P de cette graminée. En conclusion, mes travaux de recherche ont montré que la légumineuse cultivée M. sativa peut améliorer la valeur nutritive des graminées indigènes au début de l'été ainsi que celle de la graminée de saison chaude B. gracilis, dans des conditions de sécheresse sévère de la fin de l'été. De plus, l'addition de M. sativa dans le mélange de graminées indigènes peut contribuer à augmenter le nombre des espèces bénéfiques des CMA pour la production et la nutrition du fourrage au début de l'été.

Significance of soil microorganisms with special reference to climate change

There are a large number of agronomic-ecological interactions that occur in a world with increasing levels of CO2, higher temperatures and a more variable climate. Climate change and the associated severe problems will alter soil microbial populations and diversity. Soils supply many atmospheric green house gases by performing as sources or sinks. The most important of these gases include CH4, CO2 and N2O. Most of the green house gases production and consumption processes in soil are probably due to microorganisms. There is strong inquisitiveness to store carbon (C) in soils to balance global climate change. Microorganisms are vital to C sequestration by mediating putrefaction and controlling the paneling of plant residue-C between CO2 respiration losses or storage in semi-permanent soil-C pools. Microbial population groups and utility can be manipulated or distorted in the course of disturbance and C inputs to either support or edge the retention of C. Fungi play a significant role in decomposition and appear to produce organic matter that is more recalcitrant and favor long-term C storage and thus are key functional group to focus on in developing C sequestration systems. Plant residue chemistry can influence microbial communities and C loss or flow into soil C pools. Therefore, as research takings to maximize C sequestration for agricultural and forest ecosystems - moreover plant biomass production, similar studies should be conducted on microbial communities that considers the environmental situations

Studies on arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) in the Alentejo (Portugal) using pea mutants resistant to AM fungi as a control tool for field conditions

The utilization and management of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis may improve production and sustainability of the cropping system. For this purpose, native AM fungi (AMF) were sought and tested for their efficiency to increase plant growth by enhanced P uptake and by alleviation of drought stress. Pot experiments with safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and pea (Pisum sativum) in five soils (mostly sandy loamy Luvisols) and field experiments with peas were carried out during three years at four different sites. Host plants were grown in heated soils inoculated with AMF or the respective heat sterilized inoculum. In the case of peas, mutants resistant to AMF colonization were used as non-mycorrhizal controls. The mycorrhizal impact on yields and its components, transpiration, and P and N uptake was studied in several experiments, partly under varying P and N levels and water supply. Screening of native AMF by most probable number bioassays was not very meaningful. Soil monoliths were placed in the open to simulate field conditions. Inoculation with a native AMF mix improved grain yield, shoot and leaf growth variables as compared to control. Exposed to drought, higher soil water depletion of mycorrhizal plants resulted in a haying-off effect. The growth response to this inoculum could not be significantly reproduced in a subsequent open air pot experiment at two levels of irrigation and P fertilization, however, safflower grew better at higher P and water supply by multiples. The water use efficiency concerning biomass was improved by the AMF inoculum in the two experiments. Transpiration rates were not significantly affected by AM but as a tendency were higher in non-mycorrhizal safflower. A fundamental methodological problem in mycorrhiza field research is providing an appropriate (negative) control for the experimental factor arbuscular mycorrhiza. Soil sterilization or fungicide treatment have undesirable side effects in field and greenhouse settings. Furthermore, artificial rooting, temperature and light conditions in pot experiments may interfere with the interpretation of mycorrhiza effects. Therefore, the myc- pea mutant P2 was tested as a non-mycorrhizal control in a bioassay to evaluate AMF under field conditions in comparison to the symbiotic isogenetic wild type of var. FRISSON as a new integrative approach. However, mutant P2 is also of nod- phenotype and therefore unable to fix N2. A 3-factorial experiment was carried out in a climate chamber at high NPK fertilization to examine the two isolines under non-symbiotic and symbiotic conditions. P2 achieved the same (or higher) biomass as wild type both under good and poor water supply. However, inoculation with the AMF Glomus manihot did not improve plant growth. Differences of grain and straw yields in field trials were large (up to 80 per cent) between those isogenetic pea lines mainly due to higher P uptake under P and water limited conditions. The lacking N2 fixation in mutants was compensated for by high mineral N supply as indicated by the high N status of the pea mutant plants. This finding was corroborated by the results of a major field experiment at three sites with two levels of N fertilization. The higher N rate did not affect grain or straw yields of the non-fixing mutants. Very efficient AMF were detected in a Ferric Luvisol on pasture land as revealed by yield levels of the evaluation crop and by functional vital staining of highly colonized roots. Generally, levels of grain yield were low, at between 40 and 980 kg ha-1. An additional pot trial was carried out to elucidate the strong mycorrhizal effect in the Ferric Luvisol. A triplication of the plant equivalent field P fertilization was necessary to compensate for the mycorrhizal benefit which was with five times higher grain yield very similar to that found in the field experiment. However, the yield differences between the two isolines were not always plausible as the evaluation variable because they were also found in (small) field test trials with apparently sufficient P and N supply and in a soil of almost no AMF potential. This similarly occurred for pea lines of var. SPARKLE and its non-fixing mycorrhizal (E135) and non-symbiotic (R25) isomutants, which were tested in order to exclude experimentally undesirable benefits by N2 fixation. In contrast to var. FRISSON, SPARKLE was not a suitable variety for Mediterranean field conditions. This raises suspicion putative genetic defects other than symbiotic ones may be effective under field conditions, which would conflict with the concept of an appropriate control. It was concluded that AMF resistant plants may help to overcome fundamental problems of present research on arbuscular mycorrhiza, but may create new ones.

Effects of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on Growth and Yield of Banana (Musa AAA cv. Malindi) in Oman

The Sultanate of Oman is located on the south-eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, which lies on the south-western tip of the Asian continent. The strategic geographical locations of the Sultanate with its many maritime ports distributed on the Indian Ocean have historically made it one of the Arabian Peninsula leaders in the international maritime trade sector. Intensive trading relationships over long time periods have contributed to the high plant diversity seen in Oman where agricultural production depends entirely on irrigation from groundwater sources. As a consequence of the expansion of the irrigated area, groundwater depletion has increased, leading to the intrusion of seawater into freshwater aquifers. This phenomenon has caused water and soil salinity problems in large parts of the Al-Batinah governorate of Oman and threatens cultivated crops, including banana (Musa spp.). According to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the majority of South Al-Batinah farms are affected by salinity (ECe > 4 dS m-1). As no alternative farmland is available, the reclamation of salt-affected soils using simple cultural practices is of paramount importance, but in Oman little scientific research has been conducted to develop such methods of reclamation. This doctoral study was initiated to help filling this research gap, particularly for bananas. A literature review of the banana cultivation history revealed that the banana germplasm on the Arabian Peninsula is probably introduced from Indonesia and India via maritime routes across the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. In a second part of this dissertation, two experiments are described. A laboratory trial conducted at the University of Kassel, in Witzenhausen, Germany from June to July 2010. This incubation experiment was done to explore how C and N mineralization of composted dairy manure and date palm straw differed in alkaline non-saline and saline soils. Each soil was amended with four organic fertilizers: 1) composted dairy manure, 2) manure + 10% date palm straw, 3) manure + 30% date palm straw or 4) date palm straw alone, in addition to un-amended soils as control. The results showed that the saline soil had a lower soil organic C content and microbial biomass C than the non-saline soil. This led to lower mineralization rates of manure and date palm straw in the saline soil. In the non-saline soil, the application of manure and straw resulted in significant increases of CO2 emissions, equivalent to 2.5 and 30% of the added C, respectively. In the non-amended control treatment of the saline soil, the sum of CO2-C reached only 55% of the soil organic C in comparison with the non-saline soil. In which 66% of the added manure and 75% of the added straw were emitted, assuming that no interactions occurred between soil organic C, manure C and straw C during microbial decomposition. The application of straw always led to a net N immobilization compared to the control. Salinity had no specific effect on N mineralization as indicated by the CO2-C to Nmin ratio of soil organic matter and manure. However, N immobilization was markedly stronger in the saline soil. Date palm straw strongly promoted saprotrophic fungi in contrast to manure and the combined application of manure and date palm straw had synergistic positive effects on soil microorganisms. In the last week of incubation, net-N mineralization was observed in nearly all treatments. The strongest increase in microbial biomass C was observed in the manure + straw treatment. In both soils, manure had no effect on the fungi-specific membrane component ergosterol. In contrast, the application of straw resulted in strong increases of the ergosterol content. A field experiment was conducted on two adjacent fields at the Agricultural Research Station, Rumais (23°41’15” N, 57°59’1” E) in the South of Al-Batinah Plain in Oman from October 2007 to July 2009. In this experiment, the effects of 24 soil and fertilizer treatments on the growth and productivity of Musa AAA cv. 'Malindi' were evaluated. The treatments consisted of two soil types (saline and amended non-saline), two fertilizer application methods (mixed and ring applied), six fertilizer amendments (1: fresh dairy manure, 2: composted dairy manure, 3: composted dairy manure and 10% date palm straw, 4: composted dairy manure and 30% date palm straw, 5: only NPK, and 6: NPK and micronutrients). Sandy loam soil was imported from another part of Oman to amended the soil in the planting holes and create non-saline conditions in the root-zone. The results indicate that replacing the saline soil in the root zone by non-saline soil improved plant growth and yield more than fertilizer amendments or application methods. Particularly those plants on amended soil where NPK was applied using the ring method and which received micronutrients grew significantly faster to harvest (339 days), had a higher average bunch weight (9.5 kg/bunch) and were consequently more productive (10.6 tonnes/hectare/cycle) compared to the other treatments.

Alley cropping of willows and grassland for bioenergy provision: productivity, tree-crop interactions and energy balance

The demand for biomass for bioenergy has increased rapidly in industrialized countries in the recent years. Biogenic energy carriers are known to reduce CO2 emissions. However, the resource-inefficient production of biomass often caused negative impacts on the environment, e.g. biodiversity losses, nitrate leaching, and erosion. The detrimental effects evolved mainly from annual crops. Therefore, the aim of modern bioenergy cropping systems is to combine yield stability and environmental benefits by the establishment of mixed-cropping systems. A particular emphasis is on perennial crops which are perceived as environmentally superior to annual crops. Agroforestry systems represent such mixed perennial cropping systems and consist of a mix of trees and arable crops or grassland within the same area of land. Agroforestry practices vary across the globe and alley cropping is a type of agroforestry system which is well adapted to the temperate zone, with a high degree of mechanization. Trees are planted in rows and crops are planted in the alleyways, which facilitates their management by machinery. This study was conducted to examine a young alley cropping system of willows and two grassland mixtures for bioenergy provision under temperate climate conditions. The first part of the thesis identified possible competition effects between willows and the two grassland mixtures. Since light seemed to be the factor most affecting the yield performance of the understory in temperate agroforestry systems, a biennial in situ artificial shade experiment was established over a separate clover-grass stand to quantify the effects of shade. Data to possible below- and aboveground interactions among willows and the two grassland mixtures and their effects on productivity, sward composition, and quality were monitored along a tree-grassland interface within the alleys. In the second part, productivity of the alley cropping system was examined on a triennial time frame and compared to separate grassland and willow stands as controls. Three different conversion technologies (combustion of hay, integrated generation of solid fuel and biogas from biomass, whole crop digestion) were applied to grassland biomass as feedstock and analyzed for its energetic potential. The energetic potential of willow wood chips was calculated by applying combustion as conversion technique. Net energy balances of separate grassland stands, agroforestry and pure willow stands evaluated their energy efficiency. Results of the biennial artificial shade experiment showed that severe shade (80 % light reduction) halved grassland productivity on average compared to a non-shaded control. White clover as heliophilous plant responded sensitively to limited radiation and its dry matter contribution in the sward decreased with increasing shade, whereas non-leguminous forbs (mainly segetal species) benefited. Changes in nutritive quality could not be confirmed by this experiment. Through the study on interactions within the alleys of the young agroforestry system it was possible to outline changes of incident light, soil temperature and sward composition of clover-grass along the tree-grassland interface. Nearly no effects of trees on precipitation, soil moisture and understory productivity occurred along the interface during the biennial experiment. Considering the results of the productivity and the net energy yield alley cropping system had lower than pure grassland stands, irrespective of the grassland seed mixture or fertilization, but was higher than that for pure willow stands. The comparison of three different energetic conversion techniques for the grassland biomass showed highest net energy yields for hay combustion, whereas the integrated generation of solid fuel and biogas from biomass (IFBB) and whole crop digestion performed similarly. However, due to the low fuel quality of hay, its direct combustion cannot be recommended as a viable conversion technique, whereas IFBB fuels were of a similar quality to wood chip from willow.

Indicators of nitrate in wetland surface and soil-waters: interactions of vegetation and environmental factors

This paper describes a new bio-indicator method for assessing wetland ecosystem health: as such, the study is particularly relevant to current legislation such as the EU Water Framework Directive, which provides a baseline of the current status Of Surface waters. Seven wetland sites were monitored across northern Britain, with model construction data for predicting, eco-hydroloplical relationships collected from five sites during 1999, Two new sites and one repeat site were monitored during 2000 to provide model test data. The main growing season for the vegetation, and hence the sampling period, was May-August during both years. Seasonal mean concentrations of nitrate (NO3-) in surface and soil water samples during 1999 ranged from 0.01 to 14.07 mg N 1(-1), with a mean value of 1.01 mg N 1(-1). During 2000, concentrations ranged from trace level (<0.01 m- N 1(-1)) to 9.43 mg N 1(-1), with a mean of 2.73 mg N 1(.)(-1) Surface and soil-water nitrate concentrations did not influence plant species composition significantly across representative tall herb fen and mire communities. Predictive relationships were found between nitrate concentrations and structural characteristics of the wetland vegetation, and a model was developed which predicted nitrate concentrations from measures of plant diversity, canopy structure and density of reproductive structures. Two further models, which predicted stem density and density of reproductive structures respectively, utilised nitrate concentration as one of the independent predictor variables. Where appropriate, the models were tested using data collected during 2000. This approach is complementary to species-based monitoring, representing a useful and simple too] to assess ecological status in target wetland systems and has potential for bio-indication purposes.

Perception and modification of plant flavonoid signals by rhizosphere microorganisms

Flavonoids are a diverse class of polyphenolic compounds that are produced as a result of plant secondary metabolism. They are known to play a multifunctional role in rhizospheric plant-microbe and plant-plant communication. Most familiar is their function as a signal in initiation of the legume-rhizobia symbiosis, but, flavonoids may also be signals in the establishment of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and are known agents in plant defence and in allelopathic interactions. Flavonoid perception by, and impact on, their microbial targets (e.g. rhizobia, plant pathogens) is relatively well characterized. However, potential impacts on 'non-target' rhizosphere inhabitants ('non-target' is used to distinguish those microorganisms not conventionally known as targets) have not been thoroughly investigated. Thus, this review first summarizes the conventional roles of flavonoids as nod gene inducers, phytoalexins and allelochemicals before exploring questions concerning 'non-target' impacts. We hypothesize that flavonoids act to shape rhizosphere microbial community structure because they represent a potential source of carbon and toxicity and that they impact on rhizosphere function, for example, by accelerating the biodegradation of xenobiotics. We also examine the reverse question, 'how do rhizosphere microbial communities impact on flavonoid signals?' The presence of microorganisms undoubtedly influences the quality and quantity of flavonoids present in the rhizosphere, both through modification of root exudation patterns and microbial catabolism of exudates. Microbial alteration and attenuation of flavonoid signals may have ecological consequences for below-ground plant-microbe and plant-plant interaction. We have a lack of knowledge concerning the composition, concentration and bioavailability of flavonoids actually experienced by microbes in an intact rhizosphere, but this may be addressed through advances in microspectroscopic and biosensor techniques. Through the use of plant mutants defective in flavonoid biosynthesis, we may also start to address the question of the significance of flavonoids in shaping rhizosphere community structure and function.

Interactions of tea tannins and condensed tannins with proteins

Binding parameters for the interactions of four types of tannins: tea catechins, grape seed proanthocyanidins, mimosa 5-deoxy proanthocyanidins,and sorghum procyanidins (mDP=17), with gelatin and bovine serum albumin (BSA) have been determined from isothermal titration calorimetry data. Equilibrium binding constants determined for the interaction with gelatin were in the range 10(4) to 10(6) M-1 and in the order: sorghum procyanidins > grape seed proanthocyanidins > mimosa 5-deoxy proanthocyanidins > tea catechins. Interaction with BSA was generally weaker, with equilibrium binding constants of <= 10(3) M-1 for grape seed proanthocyanidins, mimosa 5-deoxy proanthocyanidins and tea catechins, and 10(4) M-1 for the sorghum procyanidins. In all cases the interactions with proteins were exothermic and involved multiple binding sites on the protein. The data are discussed in relation to the structures and the known nutritional effects of the condensed tannins.

Multitrophic links between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and insect parasitoids

The effects of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization of Leucanthemum vulgare on parasitism of a leaf-mining insect was studied in a field and a laboratory experiment. In the field, parasitism of Chromatomyia syngenesiae by Diglyphus isaea was lower on mycorrhizal plants, compared with plants where the association was reduced. A laboratory experiment, in which L. vulgare was inoculated with three species of AM fungi, showed that the effects on parasitism rates were mycorrhizal species-dependent. Some fungal combinations increased parasitism, some decreased it, while others had no effect. It is concluded that the most likely cause of these differences is plant size, with parasitoid searching efficiency being reduced on the larger plants, resulting from certain mycorrhizal species combinations. However, a mycorrhizal effect on herbivore-produced plant volatiles cannot be ruled out.

Climate vs. soil factors in local adaptation of two common plant species

Evolutionary theory suggests that divergent natural selection in heterogeneous environments can result in locally adapted plant genotypes. To understand local adaptation it is important to study the ecological factors responsible for divergent selection. At a continental scale, variation in climate can be important while at a local scale soil properties could also play a role. We designed an experiment aimed to disentangle the role of climate and ( abiotic and biotic) soil properties in local adaptation of two common plant species. A grass (Holcus lanatus) and a legume ( Lotus corniculatus), as well as their local soils, were reciprocally transplanted between three sites across an Atlantic-Continental gradient in Europe and grown in common gardens in either their home soil or foreign soils. Growth and reproductive traits were measured over two growing seasons. In both species, we found significant environmental and genetic effects on most of the growth and reproductive traits and a significant interaction between the two environmental effects of soil and climate. The grass species showed significant home site advantage in most of the fitness components, which indicated adaptation to climate. We found no indication that the grass was adapted to local soil conditions. The legume showed a significant home soil advantage for number of fruits only and thus a weak indication of adaptation to soil and no adaptation to climate. Our results show that the importance of climate and soil factors as drivers of local adaptation is species-dependent. This could be related to differences in interactions between plant species and soil biota.

Trophic interactions in a changing world: modelling aboveground-belowground interactions

The rate and scale of human-driven changes can exert profound impacts on ecosystems, the species that make them up and the services they provide that sustain humanity. Given the speed at which these changes are occurring, one of society's major challenges is to coexist within ecosystems and to manage ecosystem services in a sustainable way. The effect of possible scenarios of global change on ecosystem services can be explored using ecosystem models. Such models should adequately represent ecosystem processes above and below the soil surface (aboveground and belowground) and the interactions between them. We explore possibilities to include such interactions into ecosystem models at scales that range from global to local. At the regional to global scale we suggest to expand the plant functional type concept (aggregating plants into groups according to their physiological attributes) to include functional types of aboveground-belowground interactions. At the scale of discrete plant communities, process-based and organism-oriented models could be combined into "hybrid approaches" that include organism-oriented mechanistic representation of a limited number of trophic interactions in an otherwise process - oriented approach. Under global change the density and activity of organisms determining the processes may change non-linearly and therefore explicit knowledge of the organisms and their responses should ideally be included. At the individual plant scale a common organism-based conceptual model of aboveground-belowground interactions has emerged. This conceptual model facilitates the formulation of research questions to guide experiments aiming to identify patterns that are common within, but differ between, ecosystem types and biomes. Such experiments inform modelling approaches at larger scales. Future ecosystem models should better include this evolving knowledge of common patterns of aboveground-belowground interactions. Improved ecosystem models are necessary toots to reduce the uncertainty in the information that assists us in the sustainable management of our environment in a changing world. (C) 2004 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

A model of seed dormancy in wild oats (Avena fatua) for investigating genotype x environment interactions

Dormancy is an adaptive trait in seed populations that helps ensure that seed germination is distributed over time and occurs in environmental conditions suitable for seedling growth. Several genes.. associated with seed dormancy in various plant species, have been integrated into a hypothetical dormancy model for Avena fatua L. (wild oats). Generally, the synthesis of, and sensitivity to, abscisic acid (ABA) during imbibition determines whether genes similar to those during maturation are expressed leading to a maintenance of dormancy during extended imbibition. Alternatively, there may be a shift towards expression of genes associated with gibberellins leading to germination. Environmental factors during maturation, after-ripening and imbibition are likely to interact with the genotype to affect gene expression and hence whether or not a seed germinates. In spite of the difficulties of working on a hexaploid species, A. fatua was selected for study because of its worldwide importance as a weed. Dormant and non-dormant genotypes of this species were also available. Gene expression studies are being carried out on three A.fatua genotypes produced tinder different environmental conditions to investigate the role of specific genes in dormancy and genotype X environment interactions in relation to dormancy.

Shrubs, granivores and annual plant community stability in an arid ecosystem

Compensatory population dynamics among species stabilise aggregate community variables. Inter-specific competition is thought to be stabilising as it promotes asynchrony among populations. However, we know little about other inter-specific interactions, such as facilitation and granivory. Such interactions are also likely to influence population synchrony and community stability, especially in harsh environments where they are thought to have relatively strong effects in plant communities. We use a manipulative experiment to test the effects of granivores (harvester ants) and nurse plants (dwarf shrubs) on annual plant community dynamics in the Negev desert, Israel. We present evidence for weak and inconsistent effects of harvester ants on plant abundance and on population and community stability. By contrast, we show that annual communities under shrubs were more species rich, had higher plant density and were temporally less variable than communities in the inter-shrub matrix. Species richness and plant abundance were also more resistant to drought in the shrub under-storey compared with the inter-shrub matrix, although population dynamics in both patch types were synchronised. Hence, we show that inter-specific interactions other than competition affect community stability, and that hypothesised mechanisms linking compensatory dynamics and community stability may not operate to the same extent in arid plant communities.

Modelling disease spread and control in networks: implications for plant sciences

Networks are ubiquitous in natural, technological and social systems. They are of increasing relevance for improved understanding and control of infectious diseases of plants, animals and humans, given the interconnectedness of today's world. Recent modelling work on disease development in complex networks shows: the relative rapidity of pathogen spread in scale-free compared with random networks, unless there is high local clustering; the theoretical absence of an epidemic threshold in scale-free networks of infinite size, which implies that diseases with low infection rates can spread in them, but the emergence of a threshold when realistic features are added to networks (e.g. finite size, household structure or deactivation of links); and the influence on epidemic dynamics of asymmetrical interactions. Models suggest that control of pathogens spreading in scale-free networks should focus on highly connected individuals rather than on mass random immunization. A growing number of empirical applications of network theory in human medicine and animal disease ecology confirm the potential of the approach, and suggest that network thinking could also benefit plant epidemiology and forest pathology, particularly in human-modified pathosystems linked by commercial transport of plant and disease propagules. Potential consequences for the study and management of plant and tree diseases are discussed.