Is there still value in strategic group research?

This paper offers a selected review of strategic group theory and seeks to explore the benefits and limitations of modern strategic group analysis within the context of the Pharmaceutical Industry. The rise and fall of strategic group research is reviewed and some suggestions advanced as to the reasons why strategic group research has often produced conflicting results, particularly with regard to the link between group membership and performance. The review concludes that strategic group research continues to offer a valuable way to classify firms by their strategy and provides some suggestions as to how future studies may avoid the pitfalls exposed by previous research.

Integrating strategic groups and the resource based perspective:understanding the competitive process

Although the strategic group and resource based perspectives are frequently presented as mutually exclusive, we argue otherwise. The resource based view informs strategic group analysis through a firm's product or service portfolio by offering a richer perspective on strategy and an additional lens for competitive group interpretation. Products act as the locus and bedrock for corporate decisions and form the backbone upon which market strategies are constructed. A "corporate genome" analogy is presented to illustrate how this process occurs within the U.K. pharmaceutical industry. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Adding value through excellence

Enhancing stakeholder value in the pharmaceutical industry : the supply chain dimension

Gaining competitive advantage through your supply chain

Supply chain management in the pharmaceutical industry is the key to further enhancing shareholder value

IUPHAR-DB:the IUPHAR database of G protein-coupled receptors and ion channels

The IUPHAR database (IUPHAR-DB) integrates peer-reviewed pharmacological, chemical, genetic, functional and anatomical information on the 354 nonsensory G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), 71 ligand-gated ion channel subunits and 141 voltage-gated-like ion channel subunits encoded by the human, rat and mouse genomes. These genes represent the targets of approximately one-third of currently approved drugs and are a major focus of drug discovery and development programs in the pharmaceutical industry. IUPHAR-DB provides a comprehensive description of the genes and their functions, with information on protein structure and interactions, ligands, expression patterns, signaling mechanisms, functional assays and biologically important receptor variants (e.g. single nucleotide polymorphisms and splice variants). In addition, the phenotypes resulting from altered gene expression (e.g. in genetically altered animals or in human genetic disorders) are described. The content of the database is peer reviewed by members of the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology Committee on Receptor Nomenclature and Drug Classification (NC-IUPHAR); the data are provided through manual curation of the primary literature by a network of over 60 subcommittees of NC-IUPHAR. Links to other bioinformatics resources, such as NCBI, Uniprot, HGNC and the rat and mouse genome databases are provided. IUPHAR-DB is freely available at http://www.iuphar-db.org. © 2008 The Author(s).

The PHAR-QA project: competency framework for pharmacy practice—first steps, the results of the European Network Delphi round 1

PHAR-QA, funded by the European Commission, is producing a framework of competences for pharmacy practice. The framework is in line with the EU directive on sectoral professions and takes into account the diversity of the pharmacy profession and the on-going changes in healthcare systems (with an increasingly important role for pharmacists), and in the pharmaceutical industry. PHAR-QA is asking academia, students and practicing pharmacists to rank competences required for practice. The results show that competences in the areas of drug interactions, need for drug treatment and provision of information and service were ranked highest whereas those in the areas of ability to design and conduct research and development and production of medicines were ranked lower. For the latter two categories, industrial pharmacists ranked them higher than did the other five groups

Extração, caracterização e avaliação bioativa do extrato de Arrabidaea chica

The use of plants for medicinal purposes is ancient, with widespread application in medicinal drugs. Although plants are promising sources for the discovery of new molecules of pharmacological interest, estimates show that only 17% of them have been studied for their possible use in medicine. Thus, biodiversity of Brazilian flora represents an immense potential for economic use by the pharmaceutical industry. The plant Arrabidaea chica, popularly known as “pariri”, is common in the Amazon region, and it is assigned several medicinal properties. The leaves of this plant are rich in anthocyanins, which are phenolic compounds with high antioxidant power. Antioxidant compounds play a vital role in the prevention of neurological and cardiovascular diseases, cancer and diabetes, among others. Within the anthocyanins found in Arrabidaea chica, stands out Carajurin (6,7-dihydroxy-5,4’- dimethoxy-flavilium), which is the major pigment encountered in this plant. The present work aimed to study on supercritical extraction and conventional extraction (solid-liquid extraction) in leaves of Arrabidaea chica, evaluating the efficiency of the extractive processes, antioxidant activity and quantification of Carajurin contained in the extracts. Supercritical extraction used CO2 as solvent with addition of co-solvent (ethanol/water mixture) and were conducted by the dynamic method in a fixed bed extractor. The trials followed a 24-1 fractional factorial design, the dependent variables were: process yield, concentration of Carajurin and antioxidant activity; and independent variables were: pressure, temperature, concentration of co-solvent (v/v) and concentration of water in the co-solvent mixture (v/v). Yields (mass of dry extract/mass of raw material used) obtained from supercritical extraction ranged from 15.1% to 32%, and the best result was obtained at 250 bar and 40 °C, co-solvent concentration equal to 30% and concentration of water in the co-solvent mixture equal to 50%. Through statistical analysis, it was found that the concentration of co-solvent revealed significant effect on the yield. Yields obtained from conventional extractions were of 8.1% (water) and 5.5% (ethanol). Through HPLC (High-performance liquid chromatography) analysis, Carajurin was quantified in all the extracts and concentration values (Carajurin mass/mass of dry extract) ranged between 1% and 2.21% for supercritical extraction. For conventional extraction, Carajurin was not detected in the aqueous extract, while the ethanol extract showed Carajurin content of 7.04%, and therefore, more selective in Carajurin than the supercritical extraction. Evaluation of antioxidant power (radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl – DPPH – sequestration method) of the supercritical extracts resulted in EC50 values (effective concentration which neutralizes 50% of free radicals) ranged from 38.34 to 86.13 μg/mL, while conventional extraction resulted in EC50 values of 167.34 (water) and 42.58 (ethanol) μg/mL. As for the quantification of total phenolic content (Folin-Ciocalteau analysis) of the supercritical extracts resulted in values ranged from 48.93 and 88.62 mg GAE/g extract (GAE = Gallic Acid Equivalents), while solid-liquid extraction resulted in values of 37.63 (water) and 80.54 (ethanol) mg GAE/g extract. The good antioxidant activity cannot be attributed solely to the presence of Carajurin, but also the existence of other compounds and antioxidants in Arrabidaea chica. By optimizing the experimental design, it was possible to identify the experiment that presented the best result considering the four dependent variables together. This experiment was performed under the following conditions: pressure of 200 bar, temperature of 40 °C, co-solvent concentration equal to 30% and concentration of water in the co-solvent mixture equal to 30%. It is concluded that, within the studied range, it is possible to purchase the optimum result using milder operating conditions, which implies lower costs and greater ease of operation.

Caracterização estrutural e atividades farmacológicas do alginato obtido da alga Dictyopteris delicatula (J.V. Lamouroux., 1809) e seu derivado sulfatado

Marine algae are rich sources of various structural compounds which recently has been increasingly studied as a new source of bioactive substances. The alginate, as come as fucans, are considered the main acidic polysaccharides found in brown seaweed. This molecule consists a linear natural polysaccharide, non-sulfated, and presents monosaccharides: acid β-D-mannuronic (M) and α-L-guluronic acid (G); in a vast amount compositions and threads. Alginate has been widely applied in food and pharmaceutical industries because of its ability to retain water, forming films and gels as well as thickening, stabilizing and form emulsions. In this work we aimed to extract, structurally characterize, compare and analyze the possible pharmacological activities of native alginate molecule obtained from brown seaweed Dyctiopteris delicatula (DYN), and its chemically sulfated derivative (DYS). The alginate structure and composition molecule can be proven through chemical dosing, that showed low protein contamination and high sugar level, existence and separation of M and G blocks in the descending paper chromatography, infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance. Molecule sulfation was proven with sulphate dosage, resulting in 28.56% sulphate in molecule; electrophoresis, verify metachromasia with toluidine blue; and infrared spectroscopy, that showed a characteristic band at 1221cm-1 corresponding a sulfate group vibration. For the pharmacological activities the tests was: antioxidant activity, changes in cell function (MTT test) and anticoagulant test. In the antioxidant activity we observed that DYN showed better results in the kidnapping of hydroxyl radicals and ferric chelation compared to DYS, this had the best result in the total antioxidant capacity. Both showed similar activity in reducing power and the kidnapping radicals DPPH. In MTT test DYN and DYS had not proliferative and cytotoxic activity in fibroblast cells (3T3) and showed antiproliferative and cytotoxic activity in cancer cell lines HeLa and B16 melanoma. In anticoagulant assay DYN showed good activity in the intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation, and a small activity in the extrinsic pathway, in the other hand DYS showed only a very small activity in the extrinsic pathway, but cannot come to be regarded as an anticoagulant agent. From these results it can be concluded that the alginate was extracted and sulfated, revealing a potential compound to be used in the pharmaceutical industry as an anticoagulant agent, antioxidant and antitumor and the sulfation has not been conclusively important to performance in the tested pharmacological activities

Dear DTCA, Please Don’t Deceive Me, Don’t Play on My Fantasy

Travail créatif / Creative Work

Healthcare and the Common Good: Restructuring the Economy of Medical Knowledge through Communitarian Political Theory

The pharmaceutical industry wields disproportionate power and control within the medical economy of knowledge where the desire for profit considerably outweighs health for its own sake. Utilizing the theoretical tools of political philosophy, this project restructures the economy of medical knowledge in order to lessen the oligarchical control possessed by the pharmaceutical industry. Ultimately, this project argues that an economy of medical knowledge structured around communitarian political theory lessens the current power dynamic without taking an anti-capitalist stance. Arising from the core commitments of communitarian-liberalism, the production, distribution, and consumption of medical knowledge all become guided processes seeking to realize the common good of quality healthcare. This project also considers two other theoretical approaches: liberalism and egalitarianism. A Medical knowledge economy structured around liberal political theory is ultimately rejected as it empowers the oligarchical status quo. Egalitarian political theory is able to significantly reduce the power imbalance problem but simultaneously renders inconsequential medical knowledge; therefore, it is also rejected.

A Knowledge Management Process-Based Approach to Support Corporate Crisis Management

In the crisis-prone and complex contemporary business environment, modern organisations and their supply chains, large and small, are challenged by crises more than ever. Knowledge management has been acknowledged as an important discipline able to support the management of complexity in times of crisis. However, the role of effective knowledge retrieval and sharing in the process of crisis prevention, management and survival has been relatively underexplored. In this paper, it is argued that organisational crises create additional challenges for knowledge management, mainly because complex, polymorphic and both structured and unstructured knowledge must be efficiently harnessed, processed and disseminated to the appropriate internal and external supply chain actors, under specific time constraints. In this perspective, a process-based approach is proposed to address the knowledge management needs of organisations during a crisis and to help management in establishing the necessary risk avoidance and recovery mechanisms. Finally, the proposed methodological approach is applied in a knowledge- intensive Greek small and medium enterprise from the pharmaceutical industry, producing empirical results, insights on knowledge pathologies during crises and relevant evaluations.

Catalytic Processes Mediated by Metal−Organic Frameworks : Reactivity and Mechanistic Studies

The present thesis describes the development of heterogeneous catalytic methodologies using metal−organic frameworks (MOFs) as porous matrices for supporting transition metal catalysts. A wide spectrum of chemical reactions is covered. Following the introductory section (Chapter 1), the results are divided between one descriptive part (Chapter 2) and four experimental parts (Chapters 3–6). Chapter 2 provides a detailed account of MOFs and their role in heterogeneous catalysis. Specific synthesis methods and characterization techniques that may be unfamiliar to organic chemists are illustrated based on examples from this work. Pd-catalyzed heterogeneous C−C coupling and C−H functionalization reactions are studied in Chapter 3, with focus on their practical utility. A vast functional group tolerance is reported, allowing access to substrates of relevance for the pharmaceutical industry. Issues concerning the recyclability of MOF-supported catalysts, leaching and operation under continuous flow are discussed in detail. The following chapter explores puzzling questions regarding the nature of the catalytically active species and the pathways of deactivation for Pd@MOF catalysts. These questions are addressed through detailed mechanistic investigations which include in situ XRD and XAS data acquisition. For this purpose a custom reaction cell is also described in Chapter 4. The scope of Pd@MOF-catalyzed reactions is expanded in Chapter 5. A strategy for boosting the thermal and chemical robustness of MOF crystals is presented. Pd@MOF catalysts are coated with a protecting SiO2 layer, which improves their mechanical properties without impeding diffusion. The resulting nanocomposite is better suited to withstand the harsh conditions of aerobic oxidation reactions. In this chapter, the influence of the nanoparticles’ geometry over the catalyst’s selectivity is also investigated. While Chapters 3–5 dealt with Pd-catalyzed processes, Chapter 6 introduces hybrid materials based on first-row transition metals. Their reactivity is explored towards light-driven water splitting. The heterogenization process leads to stabilized active sites, facilitating the spectroscopic probing of intermediates in the catalytic cycle.

Rôle des protéoglycanes à héparane sulfate dans le transfert de gène des cellules CHO et HEK293

La possibilité de programmer une cellule dans le but de produire une protéine d’intérêt est apparue au début des années 1970 avec l’essor du génie génétique. Environ dix années plus tard, l’insuline issue de la plateforme de production microbienne Escherichia coli, fut la première protéine recombinante (r-protéine) humaine commercialisée. Les défis associés à la production de r-protéines plus complexes et glycosylées ont amené l’industrie biopharmaceutique à développer des systèmes d’expression en cellules de mammifères. Ces derniers permettent d’obtenir des protéines humaines correctement repliées et de ce fait, biologiquement actives. Afin de transférer le gène d’intérêt dans les cellules de mammifères, le polyéthylènimine (PEI) est certainement un des vecteurs synthétiques le plus utilisé en raison de son efficacité, mais aussi sa simplicité d’élaboration, son faible coût et sa stabilité en solution qui facilite son utilisation. Il est donc largement employé dans le contexte de la production de r-protéines à grande échelle et fait l’objet d’intenses recherches dans le domaine de la thérapie génique non virale. Le PEI est capable de condenser efficacement l’ADN plasmidique (vecteur d’expression contenant le gène d’intérêt) pour former des complexes de petites tailles appelés polyplexes. Ces derniers doivent contourner plusieurs étapes limitantes afin de délivrer le gène d’intérêt au noyau de la cellule hôte. Dans les conditions optimales du transfert de gène par le PEI, les polyplexes arborent une charge positive nette interagissant de manière électrostatique avec les protéoglycanes à héparane sulfate (HSPG) qui décorent la surface cellulaire. On observe deux familles d’HSPG exprimés en abondance à la surface des cellules de mammifères : les syndécanes (4 membres, SDC1-4) et les glypicanes (6 membres, GPC1-6). Si l’implication des HSPG dans l’attachement cellulaire des polyplexes est aujourd’hui largement acceptée, leur rôle individuel vis-à-vis de cet attachement et des étapes subséquentes du transfert de gène reste à confirmer. Après avoir optimisées les conditions de transfection des cellules de mammifères CHO et HEK293 dans le but de produire des r-protéines secrétées, nous avons entrepris des cinétiques de capture, d’internalisation des polyplexes et aussi d’expression du transgène afin de mieux comprendre le processus de transfert de gène. Nous avons pu observer des différences au niveau de ces paramètres de transfection dépendamment du système d’expression et des caractéristiques structurelles du PEI utilisé. Ces résultats présentés sous forme d’articles scientifiques constituent une base solide de l’enchaînement dans le temps des évènements essentiels à une transfection efficace des cellules CHO et HEK293 par le PEI. Chaque type cellulaire possède un profil d’expression des HSPG qui lui est propre, ces derniers étant plus ou moins permissifs au transfert de gène. En effet, une étude menée dans notre laboratoire montre que les SDC1 et SDC2 ont des rôles opposés vis-à-vis du transfert de gène. Alors que tous deux sont capables de lier les polyplexes, l’expression de SDC1 permet leur internalisation contrairement à l’expression de SDC2 qui l’inhibe. De plus, lorsque le SDC1 est exprimé à la surface des cellules HEK293, l’efficacité de transfection est augmentée de douze pourcents. En utilisant la capacité de SDC1 à induire l’internalisation des polyplexes, nous avons étudié le trafic intracellulaire des complexes SDC1 / polyplexes dans les cellules HEK293. De plus, nos observations suggèrent une nouvelle voie par laquelle les polyplexes pourraient atteindre efficacement le noyau cellulaire. Dans le contexte du transfert de gène, les HSPG sont essentiellement étudiés dans leur globalité. S’il est vrai que le rôle des syndécanes dans ce contexte est le sujet de quelques études, celui des glypicanes est inexploré. Grâce à une série de traitements chimiques et enzymatiques visant une approche « perte de fonction », l’importance de la sulfatation comme modification post-traductionnelle, l’effet des chaînes d’héparanes sulfates mais aussi des glypicanes sur l’attachement, l’internalisation des polyplexes, et l’expression du transgène ont été étudiés dans les cellules CHO et HEK293. L’ensemble de nos observations indique clairement que le rôle des HSPG dans le transfert de gène devrait être investigué individuellement plutôt que collectivement. En effet, le rôle spécifique de chaque membre des HSPG sur la capture des polyplexes et leur permissivité à l’expression génique demeure encore inconnu. En exprimant de manière transitoire chaque membre des syndécanes et glypicanes à la surface des cellules CHO, nous avons déterminé leur effet inhibiteur ou activateur sur la capture des polyplexes sans pouvoir conclure quant à l’effet de cette surexpression sur l’efficacité de transfection. Par contre, lorsqu’ils sont présents dans le milieu de culture, le domaine extracellulaire des HSPG réduit l’efficacité de transfection des cellules CHO sans induire la dissociation des polyplexes. Curieusement, lorsque chaque HSPG est exprimé de manière stable dans les cellules CHO, seulement une légère modulation de l’expression du transgène a pu être observée. Ces travaux ont contribué à la compréhension des mécanismes d'action du vecteur polycationique polyéthylènimine et à préciser le rôle des protéoglycanes à héparane sulfate dans le transfert de gène des cellules CHO et HEK293.

Capital Intelectual e Desempenho Organizacional no Sector Farmacêutico Português

Segundo o paradigma económico vigente, os intangíveis são hoje os principais factores de produção que criam riqueza no meio empresarial, devendo ser entendidos pelos gestores como factores críticos de sucesso. O conjunto de intangíveis que criam valor organizacional e sustentam a vantagem competitiva constituem o capital intelectual. Se no meio académico, o capital intelectual é visto como um motor do desenvolvimento económico, no âmbito da sociedade do conhecimento, já no meio empresarial apesar do reconhecimento da sua importância estratégica, poucos conseguem defini-lo e identificá-lo, não sabendo mesmo como tirar proveito dele. Acresce ainda o facto de o principal entrave poder estar relacionado na dificuldade em medir e representar o valor gerado por este recurso intangível. A generalidade dos autores que se dedica ao estudo do capital intelectual sustenta a existência de uma relação entre este e o desempenho organizacional, numa óptica de criação e manutenção de vantagens competitivas sustentáveis. Este trabalho apresenta um estudo exploratório realizado no âmbito da indústria farmacêutica portuguesa, com o objectivo de investigar, por um lado, a presença dos três elementos do capital intelectual: capital humano, capital estrutural e capital relacional e, por outro, o seu inter-relacionamento dentro do contexto farmacêutico português. Por fim, pretende-se investigar até que ponto o capital intelectual contribui para o sucesso das organizações analisadas. / According to the prevailing economic paradigm, intangibles are now the main factors of production that are creating wealth in the business world and they should be seen by managers as crucial factors of success. The intangible assets that create organisational value and sustain a competitive edge constitute intellectual capital. In academia intellectual capital is viewed as a driving force for economic development, in the context of the knowledge society, but in the corporate world, although recognised for its strategic importance few people can define it and identify it, or even know how to exploit it. The chief obstacle may be related to the difficulty in measuring and representing the value engendered by this intangible resource. Most authors involved in studying intellectual capital believe that it is related to organisational performance in terms of creating and retaining sustainable competitive advantages. This work is an exploratory study of the Portuguese pharmaceutical industry and it set out, first, to inquire into the presence of the three elements of intellectual capital, human capital, structural capital and relational capital, and also to examine their interrelations within the Portuguese pharmaceutical context. A final objective was to ascertain the part played by intellectual capital in the success of the organizations studied.

Développement de matériaux à base de protéines extraites du byssus de la moule bleue Mytilus edulis

Le byssus est un amas de fibres que les moules produisent afin de s’ancrer aux surfaces immergées sous l’eau. Ces fibres sont pourvues de propriétés mécaniques impressionnantes combinant rigidité, élasticité et ténacité élevées. De plus, elles possèdent un comportement d’auto-guérison de leurs propriétés mécaniques en fonction du temps lorsque la contrainte initialement appliquée est retirée. Les propriétés mécaniques de ces fibres sont le résultat de l’agencement hiérarchique de protéines de type copolymère blocs riches en collagène et de la présence de métaux formant des liens sacrificiels réversibles avec certains acides aminés comme les DOPA et les histidines. Bien que cette fibre soit très intéressante pour la production de matériaux grâce à son contenu élevé en collagène potentiellement biocompatible, cette ressource naturelle est traitée comme un déchet par les mytiliculteurs. L’objectif de cette thèse était de valoriser cette fibre en extrayant les protéines pour générer une nouvelle classe de matériaux biomimétiques. Un hydrolysat de protéines de byssus (BPH) riche en acides aminés chargés, i.e. ~30 % mol, et permettant de former des films a pu être généré. Lorsque solubilisé à pH 10.5, le BPH forme un hydrogel contenant des structures en triple hélice de collagène et des feuillets β anti-parallèles intra- et inter-moléculaires. Suite à l’évaporation de l’eau, le film de BPH résultant est insoluble en milieu aqueux à cause des structures secondaires très stables agissant comme points de réticulation effectifs. Les propriétés mécaniques des films de BPH sont modulables en fonction du pH. Au point isoélectrique (pI = 4.5), les interactions électrostatiques entre les charges opposées agissent comme points de réticulation et augmentent la rigidité des films et leur contrainte à la rupture sans affecter la déformation à la rupture. À pH plus élevé ou plus bas que le pI, les performances mécaniques des films sont plus faibles à cause de la répulsion entre les groupements fonctionnels de même charge qui interagissent plutôt avec les molécules d’eau et causent le gonflement de la matrice protéique des films. Le BPH contenant un nombre élevé d’acides aminés chargés et réactifs, nous avons pu réticuler les films de manière covalente à l’aide d’EDC ou de glutaraldéhyde. Les propriétés mécaniques des films sont modulables en fonction de la concentration d’EDC utilisée lors de la réticulation ou en employant du glutaraldéhyde comme agent réticulant. Les films sont à la fois plus rigides et plus forts avec un degré de réticulation élevé, mais perdent leur extensibilité à mesure que les segments libres de s’étirer lors d’une traction deviennent entravés par les points de réticulation. La réticulation augmente également la résistance à la dégradation enzymatique par la collagénase, les films les plus fortement réticulés lui étant pratiquement insensibles. La spectroscopie infrarouge montre enfin que la réticulation entraîne une transition de feuillets β anti-parallèles inter-moléculaires vers des structures de type hélices de collagène/PPII hydratées. Des liens sacrificiels ont été formés dans les films de BPH par traitement au pI et/ou avec différents métaux, i.e. Na+, Ca2+, Fe3+, afin de moduler les propriétés mécaniques statiques et d’évaluer le rôle de ces traitements sur le comportement d’auto-guérison lors de tests mécaniques cycliques avec différents temps de repos. Plus la valence des ions métalliques ajoutés augmente, plus les propriétés mécaniques statiques affichent un module, une contrainte à la rupture et une ténacité élevés sans toutefois affecter la déformation à la rupture, confirmant la formation de liens sacrificiels. Les tests mécaniques cycliques montrent que les traitements au pI ou avec Ca2+ créent des liens sacrificiels ioniques réversibles qui mènent à un processus d’auto-guérison des performances mécaniques dépendant du pH. L’ajout de Fe3+ à différentes concentrations module les performances mécaniques sur un plus large intervalle et la nature plus covalente de son interaction avec les acides aminés permet d’atteindre des valeurs nettement plus élevées que les autres traitements étudiés. Le Fe3+ permet aussi la formation de liens sacrificiels réversibles menant à l’auto-guérison des propriétés mécaniques. Les spectroscopies Raman et infrarouge confirment que le fer crée des liaisons avec plusieurs acides aminés, dont les histidines et les DOPA. Les résultats dans leur ensemble démontrent que les films de BPH sont des hydrogels biomimétiques du byssus qui peuvent être traités ou réticulés de différentes façons afin de moduler leurs performances mécaniques. Ils pourraient ainsi servir de matrices pour des applications potentielles dans le domaine pharmaceutique ou en ingénierie tissulaire.