Living cationic polymerization of styrene monomers

This thesis describes an experimental investigation of synthesis of polystyrene under various polymerization conditions such as solvent polarity, temperature, initial concentrations of initiator, catalyst, monomer and added salts or co-catalyst, which was achieved using the living cationic polymerization technology in conjunction with gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and NMR spectroscopy. Polymerizations of styrene were conducted using 1-phenyl ethylchloride (1-PEC) as an initiator and tin tetrachloride (SnCI4) as a catalyst in the presence of tetra-n-Butylammonium chloride (nBu4NCI). Effects of solvent polarity varied by mixing dichloromethane (DCM) and less polar cyclohexane (C.hex), temperature, initial concentrations of SnC14, 1-PEC and nBu4NCI on the polymerizations were examined, and the conditions under which a living polymerization can be obtained were optimised as: [styrene]o ~ 0.75 - 2 M; [1-PEC]o ~ 0.005 - 0.05 M; [SnCI4Jo ~ 0.05 - 0.4 M; [nBu4NCIJo ~ 0.001 - 0.1 M; DCM/C.hex ~ 50/0 - 20/30 v/v; T ~ 0 to -45°C. Kinetic studies of styrene polymerization using the Omnifit sampling method showed that the number average molecular weight (Mn) of the polymers obtained increased in direct proportion to monomer conversion and agreed well with the theoretical Mn expected from the concentration ratios of monomer to initiator. The linearities of both the 1n([MJoI[M]) vs. time plot and the Mn vs. monomer conversion plot, and the narrow molecular weight distribution (MWD) measured using GPC demonstrated the livingness of the polymerizations, indicating the absence of irreversible termination and transfer within the lifetimes of the polymerizations. The proposed 'two species' propagation mechanism was found to apply for the styrene polymerization with 1-PEC/SnCI4 in the presence of nBu4NCl. The further kinetic experiments showed that living styrene polymerizations were achieved using the 1-PEC/SnCI4 initiating system in mixtures of DCM/C.hex 30/20 v/v at -15°C in the presence of various bromide salts, tetra-n-butylammonium bromide, tetra-n-pentylammonium bromide, tetra-n-heptylammonium bromide, and tetra-n-octylammonium bromide, respectively. The types of the bromide salts were found to have no significant effect on monomer conversion, Mn, polydispersity and initiation efficiency. Living polymerizations of styrene were also achieved using titanium tetrachloride (TiCI4) as a catalyst and 1-PEC as an initiator in the presence of a small amount of 2,6-di-tert-butylpyridine or pyridine instead of nBu4NCl. GPC analysis showed that the polymers obtained had narrow polydispersities (P.D. < 1.3), and the linearities of both the In([MJo/[MJ) vs. time plot and the Mn vs. monomer conversion plot demonstrated that the polymerizations are living, when the ratio of DCM and C.hex was less than 40 : 10 and the reaction temperature was not lower than -15°C. The reaction orders relative to TiCl4 and 1-PEC were estimated from the investigations into the rate of polymerization to be 2.56 and 1.0 respectively. lH and 13C NMR analysis of the resultant polystyrene would suggest the end-functionality of the product polymers is chlorine for all living polymerizations.

EP4 prostanoid receptor-mediated vasodilatation of human middle cerebral arteries

1 Dilatation of the cerebral vasculature is recognised to be involved in the pathophysiology of migraine. Furthermore, elevated levels of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) occur in the blood, plasma and saliva of migraineurs during an attack, suggestive of a contributory role. In the present study, we have characterised the prostanoid receptors involved in the relaxation and contraction of human middle cerebral arteries in vitro. 2 In the presence of indomethacin (3μM) and the TP receptor antagonist GR32191 (1 μM), PGE2 was found to relax phenylephrine precontracted cerebral arterial rings in a concentration-dependent manner (mean pEC50 8.0 ± 0.1, n = 5). 3 Establishment of a rank order of potency using the EP4 > EP2 agonist 11-deoxy PGE1, and the EP2 > EP4 agonist PGE1-OH (mean pEC 50 of 7.6 ± 0.1 (n = 6) and 6.4 ± 0.1 (n = 4), respectively), suggested the presence of functional EP4 receptors. Furthermore, the selective EP2 receptor agonist butaprost at concentrations < 1 μM failed to relax the tissues. 4 Blockade of EP 4 receptors with the EP4 receptor antagonists AH23848 and EP4A caused significant rightward displacements in PGE2 concentration-response curves, exhibiting pA2 and pKB values of 5.7 ± 0.1, n = 3, and 8.4, n = 3, respectively. 5 The IP receptor agonists iloprost and cicaprost relaxed phenylephrine precontracted cerebral arterial rings (mean pEC50 values 8.3 ± 0.1 (n = 4) and 8.1 ± 0.1 (n = 9), respectively). In contrast, the DP and FP receptor agonists PGD2 and PGFα2 failed to cause appreciable relaxation or contraction at concentrations of up to 30 μM. In the absence of phenylephrine contraction and GR32191, the TP receptor agonist U46619 caused concentration-dependent contraction of cerebral artery (mean pEC50 7.4 ± 0.3, n = 3). 6 These data demonstrate the presence of prostanoid EP4 receptors mediating PGE2 vasodilatation of human middle cerebral artery. IP receptors mediating relaxation and TP receptors mediating contraction were also functionally demonstrated.

Numerical calculation of diffraction coefficients from building edges using FDTD method

Finite Difference Time Domain (FDTD) Method and software are applied to obtain diffraction waves from modulated Gaussian plane wave illumination for right angle wedges and Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is used to get diffraction coefficients in a wideband in the illuminated lit region. Theta and Phi polarization in 3-dimensional, TM and TE polarization in 2-dimensional cases are considered respectively for soft and hard diffraction coefficients. Results using FDTD method of perfect electric conductor (PEC) wedge are compared with asymptotic expressions from Uniform Theory of Diffraction (UTD). Extend the PEC wedges to some homogenous conducting and dielectric building materials for diffraction coefficients that are not available analytically in practical conditions. ^

Children with special health care needs: Comparison of the effects of home care setting, prescribed pediatric extended care setting, and long-term care setting on child and family health outcomes and health care service use

Technological advances during the past 30 years have dramatically improved survival rates for children with life-threatening conditions (preterm births, congenital anomalies, disease, or injury) resulting in children with special health care needs (CSHCN), children who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition and who require health and related services beyond that required by children generally. There are approximately 10.2 million of these children in the United States or one in five households with a child with special health care needs. Care for these children is limited to home care, medical day care (Prescribed Pediatric Extended Care; P-PEC) or a long term care (LTC) facility. There is very limited research examining health outcomes of CSHCN and their families. The purpose of this research was to compare the effects of home care settings, P-PEC settings, and LTC settings on child health and functioning, family health and function, and health care service use of families with CSHCN. Eighty four CSHCN ages 2 to 21 years having a medically fragile or complex medical condition that required continual monitoring were enrolled with their parents/guardians. Interviews were conducted monthly for five months using the PedsQL™ Generic Core Module for child health and functioning, PedsQL™ Family Impact Module for family health and functioning, and Access to Care from the NS-CSHCN survey for health care services. Descriptive statistics, chi square, and ANCOVA were conducted to determine differences across care settings. Children in the P-PEC settings had a highest health care quality of life (HRQL) overall including physical and psychosocial functioning. Parents/guardians with CSHCN in LTC had the highest HRQL including having time and energy for a social life and employment. Parents/guardians with CSHCN in home care settings had the poorest HRQL including physical and psychosocial functioning with cognitive difficulties, difficulties with worry, communication, and daily activities. They had the fewest hours of employment and the most hours providing direct care for their children. Overall health care service use was the same across the care settings.

Determining polarization dependent diffraction coefficients from building edges using FDTD method

Electromagnetic waves in suburban environment encounter multiple obstructions that shadow the signal. These waves are scattered and random in polarization. They take multiple paths that add as vectors at the portable device. Buildings have vertical and horizontal edges. Diffraction from edges has polarization dependent characteristics. In practical case, a signal transmitted from a vertically polarized high antenna will result in a significant fraction of total power in the horizontal polarization at the street level. Signal reception can be improved whenever there is a probability of receiving the signal in at least two independent ways or branches. The Finite-Difference Time-Domain (FDTD) method was applied to obtain the two and three-dimensional dyadic diffraction coefficients (soft and hard) of right-angle perfect electric conductor (PEC) wedges illuminated by a plane wave. The FDTD results were in good agreement with the asymptotic solutions obtained using Uniform Theory of Diffraction (UTD). Further, a material wedge replaced the PEC wedge and the dyadic diffraction coefficient for the same was obtained.

Nanostructured Metal Oxide Coatings for Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage Electrodes

The realization of an energy future based on safe, clean, sustainable, and economically viable technologies is one of the grand challenges facing modern society. Electrochemical energy technologies underpin the potential success of this effort to divert energy sources away from fossil fuels, whether one considers alternative energy conversion strategies through photoelectrochemical (PEC) production of chemical fuels or fuel cells run with sustainable hydrogen, or energy storage strategies, such as in batteries and supercapacitors. This dissertation builds on recent advances in nanomaterials design, synthesis, and characterization to develop novel electrodes that can electrochemically convert and store energy.

Chapter 2 of this dissertation focuses on refining the properties of TiO2-based PEC water-splitting photoanodes used for the direct electrochemical conversion of solar energy into hydrogen fuel. The approach utilized atomic layer deposition (ALD); a growth process uniquely suited for the conformal and uniform deposition of thin films with angstrom-level thickness precision. ALD’s thickness control enabled a better understanding of how the effects of nitrogen doping via NH3 annealing treatments, used to reduce TiO2’s bandgap, can have a strong dependence on TiO2’s thickness and crystalline quality. In addition, it was found that some of the negative effects on the PEC performance typically associated with N-doped TiO2 could be mitigated if the NH3-annealing was directly preceded by an air-annealing step, especially for ultrathin (i.e., < 10 nm) TiO2 films. ALD was also used to conformally coat an ultraporous conductive fluorine-doped tin oxide nanoparticle (nanoFTO) scaffold with an ultrathin layer of TiO2. The integration of these ultrathin films and the oxide nanoparticles resulted in a heteronanostructure design with excellent PEC water oxidation photocurrents (0.7 mA/cm2 at 0 V vs. Ag/AgCl) and charge transfer efficiency.

In Chapter 3, two innovative nanoarchitectures were engineered in order to enhance the pseudocapacitive energy storage of next generation supercapacitor electrodes. The morphology and quantity of MnO2 electrodeposits was controlled by adjusting the density of graphene foliates on a novel graphenated carbon nanotube (g-CNT) scaffold. This control enabled the nanocomposite supercapacitor electrode to reach a capacitance of 640 F/g, under MnO2 specific mass loading conditions (2.3 mg/cm2) that are higher than previously reported. In the second engineered nanoarchitecture, the electrochemical energy storage properties of a transparent electrode based on a network of solution-processed Cu/Ni cores/shell nanowires (NWs) were activated by electrochemically converting the Ni metal shell into Ni(OH)2. Furthermore, an adjustment of the molar percentage of Ni plated onto the Cu NWs was found to result in a tradeoff between capacitance, transmittance, and stability of the resulting nickel hydroxide-based electrode. The nominal area capacitance and power performance results obtained for this Cu/Ni(OH)2 transparent electrode demonstrates that it has significant potential as a hybrid supercapacitor electrode for integration into cutting edge flexible and transparent electronic devices.

Understanding Media Production: A rejoinder to Murdock and Golding

This article is a rejoinder to Murdock and Golding’s response to my critique of the political economy of communications (PEC) analysis of media production (see Author 2015). This article sets this exchange in the context of a broader debate in recent editions of Media, Culture & Society (Garnham 2016, Fuchs, 2016) about the value of PEC. Much of this debate stems from Garnham’s (2011) critical review of 40 years of PEC research.

Revisiting the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous of the NW South Iberian Basin: new ages and sedimentary environments

The study of the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous deposits (Higueruelas, Villar del Arzobispo and Aldea de Cortés Formations) of the South Iberian Basin (NW Valencia, Spain) reveals new stratigraphic and sedimentological data, which have significant implications on the stratigraphic framework, depositional environments and age of these units. The Higueruelas Fm was deposited in a mid-inner carbonate platform where oncolitic bars migrated by the action of storms and where oncoid production progressively decreased towards the uppermost part of the unit. The overlying Villar del Arzobispo Fm has been traditionally interpreted as an inner platform-lagoon evolving into a tidal-flat. Here it is interpreted as an inner-carbonate platform affected by storms, where oolitic shoals protected a lagoon, which had siliciclastic inputs from the continent. The Aldea de Cortés Fm has been previously interpreted as a lagoon surrounded by tidal-flats and fluvial-deltaic plains. Here it is reinterpreted as a coastal wetland where siliciclastic muddy deposits interacted with shallow fresh to marine water bodies, aeolian dunes and continental siliciclastic inputs. The contact between the Higueruelas and Villar del Arzobispo Fms, classically defined as gradual, is also interpreted here as rapid. More importantly, the contact between the Villar del Arzobispo and Aldea de Cortés Fms, previously considered as unconformable, is here interpreted as gradual. The presence of Alveosepta in the Villar del Arzobispo Fm suggests that at least part of this unit is Kimmeridgian, unlike the previously assigned Late Tithonian-Middle Berriasian age. Consequently, the underlying Higueruelas Fm, previously considered Tithonian, should not be younger than Kimmeridgian. Accordingly, sedimentation of the Aldea de Cortés Fm, previously considered Valangian-Hauterivian, probably started during the Tithonian and it may be considered part of the regressive trend of the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous cycle. This is consistent with the dinosaur faunas, typically Jurassic, described in the Villar del Arzobispo and Aldea de Cortés Fms.

Chemotherapy patient perception regarding communication with the healthcare staff

Purpose: To qualitatively explore the communication between healthcare professionals and oncology patients based on the perception of patients undergoing chemotherapy.Method: Qualitative and exploratory design. Participants were 14 adult patients undergoing chemotherapy at different stages of the disease. A socio-demographic and clinical data form was utilized along with semi-structured interviews. The interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and content analysis was performed. Two independent judges evaluated the interview content in regards to emerging categories and obtained a Kappa index of 0.834.Results: Three categories emerged from the data: 1) Technical communication without emotional support, in which the information provided is composed of strictly technical information regarding the diagnosis, treatment and/or prognosis; 2) Technical communication, in which the information provided is oriented towards the technical aspects of the patient’s physical condition, while also providing psychological support for the patients’ subjective needs; and 3) Insufficient technical communication, win which there are gaps in the information provided causing confusion and suffering to the patient.Conclusions: Communication with emotional support contributes to greater satisfaction of chemotherapy patients. Practical implications: the results provide elements for the training of healthcare professionals regarding the importance of the emotional support that can be offered to cancer patients during their treatment.

Conhecimento Emocional e Perturbação do Espetro do Autismo: um estudo exploratório com crianças em idade escolar

Introdução: Vários estudos associam a Pertubação do Espetro do Autismo a um défice no processamento social e informação emocional, na reações às emoções dos outros e reconhecimento emocional. O presente estudo, de cariz exploratório, pretende analisar a relação entre o conhecimento emocional e esta perturbação em crianças em idade escolar, não se limitanto à identificação das emoções do outro através da visualização de fotografias, mas também através de apresentação de vinhetas com contextos situacionais e comportamentais. Metodologia: A amostra inclui 40 crianças entre os 6 e os 14 anos: 20 com PEA (média de idade, M = 9,8; desvio padrão, DP = 2,48), 20 sem PEA (média de idade, M = 10,3; desvio padrão, DP = 2,43). Foi aplicada a Escala de Avaliação do Conhecimento Emocional (EACE), traduzida e adaptada à população portuguesa por Alves (2006) do original Assessment of Children’s Emotion Skills (ACES; Schultz, Izard & Bear, 2002), através da qual obtemos a Perceção Emocional Correta (PEC). Resultados: As crianças com PEA pontuam mais baixo (PEC = 27,9; desvio padrão; DP = 3,9), do que as crianças sem PEA (PEC = 33,6; desvio padrão; DP = 2,2). A análise por sub-escalas verifica que as crianças com PEA pontuam mais baixo quando são dadas as vinhetas com contextos situacionais ou comportamentais do que na identificação da emoção utilizando fotografias. Não há evolução no valor de PEC consoante a idade das crianças com PEA. Existem diferenças significativas na média de acertos em todos os sentimentos identificáveis entre as crianças com PEA e sem PEA. Conclusão: O conhecimento emocional contribui para o ajuste psicossocial da criança, sendo necessário a aplicação de programas de ensino de competências sociais e emocionais às crianças com Pertubação do Espetro do Autismo.

Tecnologias de informação geográfica e promoção do pensamento espacial crítico: estratégias transdisciplinares em educação para o desenvolvimento sustentável no 3º CEB

Perante a fragilidade da atual conjuntura mundial nos contextos económico, social e ambiental, urge a necessidade de educar os novos cidadãos para a sustentabilidade, pelo conhecimento interativo do local onde vivem e do mundo que os integra. “Ensinar a pensar” e a encontrar soluções criativas sustentáveis, torna-se incontornável. Reconhecendo-se que este propósito carece da integração do conhecimento presencial no território, e a importância das competências de saber pensar o espaço e intervir no meio, partilhadas pela Educação Geográfica (EG) e pela Educação para o Desenvolvimento Sustentável (EDS), onde a dimensão “Espaço” é crítica e aglutinadora das aprendizagens, no presente trabalho propõe-se dar resposta à questão de como desenvolver o Pensamento Espacial Crítico, com recurso a Tecnologias de Informação Geográfica (TIG), de forma a promover aprendizagens significativas em EDS, ao nível do 3.º Ciclo do Ensino Básico (CEB) e no contexto da Escola Básica de Campia. Tendo como grande finalidade a inovação das práticas educativas, espera-se com esta investigação contribuir para o alargamento de fronteiras do conhecimento em Multimédia em Educação e da EG, assumindo-se a importância desta no domínio da EDS, estimulando o Pensamento Espacial (PE), o Pensamento Crítico (PC) e a forma como os alunos e restante comunidade educativa olham e atuam sobre o meio. Face à finalidade apresentada e dado o caráter inovador da presente investigação, adotou-se a metodologia de investigação-ação (I/A), no contexto do paradigma sóciocrítico, de pendor qualitativo. Este estudo foi desenvolvido por intermédio de uma Oficina de Formação, em dois ciclos de I/A, tendo como objetivo a conceção e implementação de estratégias transdisciplinares de ensino e aprendizagem (E/A) em EDS, visando o desenvolvimento de capacidades de PEC e sendo suportadas por TIG. Foram concebidos diversos instrumentos de recolha de dados, para cada ciclo de I/A, e o corpo de dados foi analisado essencialmente através da técnica de análise de conteúdo e pontualmente através da análise estatística de cariz descritivo. O modelo de análise de dados centrou-se numa análise SWOT para identificação das forças, fraquezas, oportunidades e ameaças, e numa matriz TOWS para identificação das ações a empreender entre os ciclos de I/A. Propõe-se, para o efeito, um referencial teórico didático para o conceito de PEC, através de uma taxonomia de capacidades e competências resultante da implementação dos ciclos de I/A. Os resultados obtidos permitem observar que: i) a EG, pelas competências que preconiza e pelo enfoque da dimensão espacial, é potencialmente aglutinadora das aprendizagens, no currículo do 3.º CEB, e pode favorecer a transdisciplinaridade, essencial na EDS; ii) as estratégias de ensino e aprendizagem assentes na EG e com recurso a TIG são promotoras de aprendizagens significativas em EDS pelo desenvolvimento de capacidades de PEC. Contudo, as limitações evidenciadas na investigação suscitaram, através dos ciclos de I/A, a redefinição do percurso formativo proposto e dos instrumentos de recolha de dados concebidos, bem como a introdução de melhorias à taxonomia de PEC desenvolvida no âmbito da presente tese. Entre outras limitações discutidas (como a resistência à utilização de tecnologia em contexto de E/A), salientamos uma limitação sistémica, inerente aos atuais contextos educativos formais (currículo, distribuição do serviço docente, etc.), que desincentiva uma efetiva implementação de estratégias transdisciplinares e do trabalho colaborativo entre professores. Apesar das limitações elencadas consideramos que este estudo contribui para um aprofundamento do conhecimento sobre a potencialidade das TIG na promoção de competências e capacidades de PEC dos alunos, nomeadamente pelo avanço na clarificação das mesmas, plasmadas no instrumento desenvolvido no âmbito desta tese (taxonomia de PEC). Como disseminação desta investigação, salienta-se que o referido instrumento integrará o referencial teórico de um projeto europeu Erasmus + (ENAbLE), para suporte à conceção dos dispositivos didáticos que acompanharão uma aplicação de TIG que será concebida especificamente para o contexto de E/A.

Em que medida a estimulação cognitiva vertente estimulação sensorial, contribui para o bem estar e qualidade de vida da pessoa idosa com demência

Trabalho de Projeto apresentado à Escola Superior de Educação de Paula Frassinetti para obtenção do grau de mestre em Intervenção Comunitária, especialização em Educação para a Saúde

Children with Special Health Care Needs: Comparison of the Effects of Home Care Setting, Prescribed Pediatric Extended Care Setting, and Long-Term Care Setting on Child and Family Health Outcomes and Health Care Service Use

Technological advances during the past 30 years have dramatically improved survival rates for children with life-threatening conditions (preterm births, congenital anomalies, disease, or injury) resulting in children with special health care needs (CSHCN), children who have or are at increased risk for a chronic physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional condition and who require health and related services beyond that required by children generally. There are approximately 10.2 million of these children in the United States or one in five households with a child with special health care needs. Care for these children is limited to home care, medical day care (Prescribed Pediatric Extended Care; P-PEC) or a long term care (LTC) facility. There is very limited research examining health outcomes of CSHCN and their families. The purpose of this research was to compare the effects of home care settings, P-PEC settings, and LTC settings on child health and functioning, family health and function, and health care service use of families with CSHCN. Eighty four CSHCN ages 2 to 21 years having a medically fragile or complex medical condition that required continual monitoring were enrolled with their parents/guardians. Interviews were conducted monthly for five months using the PedsQL TM Generic Core Module for child health and functioning, PedsQL TM Family Impact Module for family health and functioning, and Access to Care from the NS-CSHCN survey for health care services. Descriptive statistics, chi square, and ANCOVA were conducted to determine differences across care settings. Children in the P-PEC settings had a highest health care quality of life (HRQL) overall including physical and psychosocial functioning. Parents/guardians with CSHCN in LTC had the highest HRQL including having time and energy for a social life and employment. Parents/guardians with CSHCN in home care settings had the poorest HRQL including physical and psychosocial functioning with cognitive difficulties, difficulties with worry, communication, and daily activities. They had the fewest hours of employment and the most hours providing direct care for their children. Overall health care service use was the same across the care settings.

Better Regulation in Latin American Countries: A tool for accountability?

In the last few years, a steadily increasing number of Latin American countries have been adopting policy assessment instruments and new governance structures for them, as part of their policymaking process. Even though the literature argues that these instruments serve, among other things, as tools for accountability, for this to be so, it is necessary to take into account the legal system, decision-making process, and regulatory relationships that exist in the adopting countries. This Thesis researches the policy assessment arrangements adopted and implemented in the Latin American region to understand why are these countries adopting and implementing tools for policy evaluation? Can this contribute towards regulatory accountability, and if so, in which conditions? The Thesis first analyzes the rationales that these countries might have to adopt these regulatory policy arrangements. It then studies the various tools used for policy assessment, paying attention to the scope of the assessments, the times and the stages on which regulations are assessed, referred to as the Policy Evaluation Cycle (PEC), as well as to the governance of these processes. The Thesis develops a framework where each of these components are organized and classified based on which goals or rationales they serve. This can assist countries on deciding how to implement their policy evaluation arrangements, to serve their own goals. Since all of the studied countries have presidential systems, this Thesis studies how regulations are made in this system, and the multiple needed delegations for policymaking, which results in various regulatory relationships. Thus, the desired accountability of policymakers towards their different forums makes relevant the adoption this agenda for regulatory accountability reasons. Bringing to together the literatures on public law, accountability and policy evaluation, this Thesis builds a framework for assessing the contribution towards accountability that each stage of the PEC might have in a specific regulatory relationship. The framework shows to which degree the stages, and the cycle as a whole, contribute towards accountability in specific relationships of a presidential constitutional system. The results evidence that even when a policy assessment structure might contribute towards accountability, this contribution is not absolute as it only operates in specific regulatory relationships, and even more, only in some stages of the PEC contributing at different degrees. This framework can be used by governments or regulatory agencies as an instrument to assess the contribution to accountability of their existing or potential regulatory policy structures in order to improve it.