Microfabrication processes for microfluidic devices on a single laser Workstation: direct writing lithography on SU-8, laser ablation on polymers and mask manufacturing

We demonstrate the capability of a laser micromachining workstation for cost-effective manufacturing of a variety of microfluidic devices, including SU-8 microchannels on silicon wafers and 3D complex structures made on polyimide Kapton® or poly carbonate (PC). The workstation combines a KrF excimer laser at 248 nm and a Nd3+:YVO4 DPSS with a frequency tripled at 355 nm with a lens magnification 10X, both lasers working at a pulsed regime with nanoseconds (ns) pulse duration. Workstation also includes a high-resolution motorized XYZ-tilt axis (~ 1 um / axis) and a Through The Lens (TTL) imaging system for a high accurate positioning over a 120 x 120 mm working area. We have surveyed different fabrication techniques: direct writing lithography,mask manufacturing for contact lithography and polymer laser ablation for complex 3D devices, achieving width channels down to 13μ m on 50μ m SU-8 thickness using direct writing lithography, and width channels of 40 μm for polyimide on SiO2 plate. Finally, we have tested the use of some devices for capillary chips measuring the flow speed for liquids with different viscosities. As a result, we have characterized the presence of liquid in the channel by interferometric microscopy.

Double ion implantation and pulsed laser melting processes for third generation solar cells

In the framework of the third generation of photovoltaic devices, the intermediate band solar cell is one of the possible candidates to reach higher efficiencies with a lower processing cost. In this work, we introduce a novel processing method based on a double ion implantation and, subsequently, a pulsed laser melting (PLM) process to obtain thicker layers of Ti supersaturated Si. We perform ab initio theoretical calculations of Si impurified with Ti showing that Ti in Si is a good candidate to theoretically form an intermediate band material in the Ti supersaturated Si. From time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectroscopy measurements, we confirm that we have obtained a Ti implanted and PLM thicker layer of 135 nm. Transmission electron microscopy reveals a single crystalline structure whilst the electrical characterization confirms the transport properties of an intermediate band material/Si substrate junction. High subbandgap absorption has been measured, obtaining an approximate value of 104 cm−1 in the photons energy range from 1.1 to 0.6 eV.

Laser induced forward transfer of silver pastes for printing of fingers in c-si cells.

The main objective of this work is to adapt the Laser Induced Forward Techniques (LIFT), a well- known laser direct writing technique for material transfer, to define metallic contacts (fingers and busbars) onto c-Si cells. The silver paste (with viscosity around 30-50 kcPs) is applied over a glass substrate using a coater. The thickness of the paste can be control changing the deposit parameters. The glass with the silver paste is set at a controlled gap over the c-Si cell. A solid state pulsed laser (532 nm) is focused at the glass/silver interface producing a droplet of silver that it is transferred to the c-Si cell. A scanner is used to print lines. The process parameters (silver paste thickness, gap and laser parameters -spot size, pulse energy and overlapping of pulses) are modified and the morphology of the lines is studied using confocal microscopy. Long lines are printed and the uniformity (in thickness and height) is studied. Some examples of metallization of larger areas (up to 10 cm x 10 cm) are presented.

Multiphoton fluorescence excitation: new spectral windows for biological nonlinear microscopy.

Intrinsic, three-dimensionally resolved, microscopic imaging of dynamical structures and biochemical processes in living preparations has been realized by nonlinear laser scanning fluorescence microscopy. The search for useful two-photon and three-photon excitation spectra, motivated by the emergence of nonlinear microscopy as a powerful biophysical instrument, has now discovered a virtual artist's palette of chemical indicators, fluorescent markers, and native biological fluorophores, including NADH, flavins, and green fluorescent proteins, that are applicable to living biological preparations. More than 25 two-photon excitation spectra of ultraviolet and visible absorbing molecules reveal useful cross sections, some conveniently blue-shifted, for near-infrared absorption. Measurements of three-photon fluorophore excitation spectra now define alternative windows at relatively benign wavelengths to excite deeper ultraviolet fluorophores. The inherent optical sectioning capability of nonlinear excitation provides three-dimensional resolution for imaging and avoids out-of-focus background and photodamage. Here, the measured nonlinear excitation spectra and their photophysical characteristics that empower nonlinear laser microscopy for biological imaging are described.

Análise in vitro da morfologia e da resistência de união da resina composta à dentina erodida e irradiada com laser de Er:YAG com largura de pulso super curta

Lesões dentais por erosão têm sido cada vez mais presentes na prática clínica. A restauração direta com resina composta é uma das opções de tratamento para lesões severas, em que há comprometimento estético/funcional. Com o aprimoramento da tecnologia, a utilização do laser para pré-tratamento da superfície dentinária, antes do condicionamento ácido, tem sido considerada como método alternativo para melhorar a adesão das resinas compostas às superfícies erodidas. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo in vitro foi avaliar a influência da irradiação com laser de Er:YAG (2,94 ?m), de pulso super-curto, na adesão da resina composta à superfície dentinária erodida. Quarenta e seis discos de dentina foram obtidos a partir de 46 dentes terceiros molares humanos. A dentina oclusal planificada de 40 molares humanos teve metade de sua face protegida com fita UPVC (dentina hígida), enquanto na outra metade foi produzida uma lesão de erosão através da ciclagem em ácido cítrico (0,05 M, pH 2,3, 10 minutos, 6x/dia) e solução supersaturada (pH 7,0, 60 minutos entre os ataques ácidos). Metade das amostras foi irradiada com o laser de Er:YAG (50 ?s, 2 Hz, 80 mJ, 12,6 J/cm2) e a outra não (grupo controle). Em cada grupo de tratamento (laser ou controle) (n=10), um sistema adesivo autocondicionante foi utilizado e, então, confeccionados 2 cilindros de resina composta, tanto do lado erodido como no hígido (total de 4 cilindros), os quais foram submetidos à avaliação da Resistência de União através do ensaio de microcisalhamento (1 mm/min), após armazenamento em saliva artificial por 24 h. A análise do padrão de fratura foi realizada em microscópio óptico (40x). Por meio da Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV), a morfologia das superfícies dentinárias hígida e submetida ao desafio erosivo, antes e após o tratamento com laser de Er:YAG (n=3), foi avaliada. Os valores obtidos de resistência de união (MPa) foram submetidos ao teste ANOVA e de comparações múltiplas de Tukey (p<0,05) e as análises das eletromicrografias foram feitas de forma descritiva. A análise morfológica da superfície mostrou alterações significativas na dentina hígida irradiada e na submetida à ciclagem erosiva, irradiada ou não. Quanto à resistência de união, houve diferença entre os 4 substratos analisados, sendo: dentina hígida irradiada (12,77±5,09 A), dentina hígida não irradiada (9,76±3,39 B), dentina erodida irradiada (7,62±3,39 C) e dentina erodida não irradiada (5,12±1,72 D). Houve predominância de padrão de fratura do tipo adesiva. Com base nos resultados e nos parâmetros de irradiação utilizados neste estudo, pode-se concluir que a erosão reduz a adesão em dentina e que o tratamento da superfície dentinária com laser de Er:YAG de largura de pulso super curta aumenta a adesão no substrato erodido ou hígido.

Efeitos da soldagem por laser de fibra de Yb na microestrutura do compósito A356/SiCp

Materiais compósitos são projetados e fabricados para várias aplicações de alto desempenho, incluindo componentes para os segmentos automobilístico, aeroespacial, aeronáutico, naval, de defesa, de óleo e gás, energia eólica e até equipamentos esportivos. Porém, a união por soldagem de Compósitos de Matriz Metálica de Alumínio (Al-CMM) ainda é um grande obstáculo para a maior disseminação desta classe de materiais estruturais. As mudanças microestruturais decorrentes do ciclo de soldagem e/ou do tratamento térmico afetam sensivelmente as propriedades mecânicas e físico-químicas finais da junta e do metal base nas proximidades de mesma, daí a importância de se estudar a evolução microestrutural que prospera nestas etapas. O presente trabalho caracterizou a microestrutura do compósito liga-A356/SiCp soldado por laser de fibra de Itérbio, empregando-se nessa tarefa técnicas de microscopia óptica, radiografia e microscopia eletrônica de varredura, assim como difração de raios-X e de elétrons retroespalhados, ensaio instrumentado de dureza e microtomografia computadorizada. O foco das análises realizadas restringiu-se à geometria dos cordões de solda, à expulsão de SiC particulado da zona soldada, à volatilização de elementos químicos da poça de soldagem, à formação de precipitados fragilizantes de Al4SiC4 em formato de agulhas no cordão de solda e à determinação das regiões com concentração de poros, todos estes fenômenos tendo efeitos nocivos, em maior ou menor extensão, no desempenho global da junta do Al-CMM soldada a laser, notadamente em suas propriedades mecânicas e eletroquímicas.

Experimental investigation of interface states and photovoltaic effects on the scanning capacitance microscopy measurement for p-n junction dopant profiling

Controlled polishing procedures were used to produce both uniformly doped and p-n junction silicon samples with different interface state densities but identical oxide thicknesses. Using these samples, the effects of interface states on scanning capacitance microscopy (SCM) measurements could be singled out. SCM measurements on the junction samples were performed with and without illumination from the atomic force microscopy laser. Both the interface charges and the illumination were seen to affect the SCM signal near p-n junctions significantly. SCM p-n junction dopant profiling can be achieved by avoiding or correctly modeling these two factors in the experiment and in the simulation. (c) 2005 American Institute of Physics.

Structure of fiber gratings directly written by infrared femtosecond laser

Structural modification m gratings inscribed point-by-point by a femtosecond laser is investigated using quantitative phase microscopy. The gratings present a central region with a depressed refractive index surrounded by an outer corona with increased index. © 2006 Optical Society of America.

3D Reconstruction of the complex dielectric function of glass during femtosecond laser micro-fabrication

We report on a new technique to reconstruct the 3D dielectric function change in transparent dielectric materials and the application of the technique for on-line monitoring of refractive index modification in BK7 glass during direct femtosecond laser microfabrication. The complex optical field scattered from the modified region is measured using two-beam, single-shot interferogram and the distribution of the modified refractive index is reconstructed by numerically solving the inverse scattering problem in Born approximation. The optical configuration suggested is further development of digital holographic microscopy (DHM). It takes advantage of high spatial resolution and almost the same optical paths for both interfering beams, and allows ultrafast time resolution.

Inscription and characterization of waveguides written into borosilicate glass by a high-repetition-rate femtosecond laser at 800 nm

A series of waveguides was inscribed in a borosilicate glass (BK7) by an 11 MHz repetition rate femtosecond laser operating with pulse energies from 16 to 30 nJ and focused at various depths within the bulk material. The index modification was measured using a quantitative phase microscopy technique that revealed central index changes ranging from 5×10-3 to 10-2, leading to waveguides that exhibited propagation losses of 0.2 dB/cm at a wavelength of 633 nm and 0.6 dB/cm at a wavelength of 1550 nm with efficient mode matching, less than 0.2 dB, to standard optical fibers. Analysis of the experimental data shows that, for a given inscription energy, the index modification has a strong dependence on inscription scanning velocity. At higher energies, the index modification increases with increasing inscription scanning velocity with other fabrication parameters constant.

3D reconstruction of the complex dielectric function of glass during femtosecond laser micro-fabrication

We report on a new technique to reconstruct the 3D dielectric function change in transparent dielectric materials and the application of the technique for on-line monitoring of refractive index modification in BK7 glass during direct femtosecond laser microfabrication. The complex optical field scattered from the modified region is measured using two-beam, single-shot interferogram and the distribution of the modified refractive index is reconstructed by numerically solving the inverse scattering problem in Born approximation. The optical configuration suggested is further development of digital holographic microscopy. It takes advantage of high spatial resolution and almost the same optical paths for both interfering beams, and allows ultrafast time resolution. © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC. 2011.

Highly efficient SHG at 561 nm using a QD laser and a PPLN waveguide

Compact CW lasers in the visible spectral region are of great importance for vast number of applications including biophotonics, photomedicine, spectroscopy and confocal microscopy. Currently, commercially available lasers of this spectral region are bulky, expensive and inconvenient in use. Also, there is a lack of diode lasers emitting in the visible spectral range, particularly in the yellow region, where a range of important fluorescent probes are optimally excited. An attractive way to realize a compact yellow laser source is second harmonic generation (SHG) in a periodically poled nonlinear crystal containing a waveguide which allows high-efficient frequency conversion even at moderate power level. In this respect, periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) waveguided crystal is one of the best candidates for efficient SHG. In recent years, the progress made with the fabrication of good quality waveguides in PPLN crystals in combination with availability of low-cost, good quality semiconductor diode lasers, offering the coverage of a broad spectral range between 1 µm and 1.3 µm, allows compact CW laser sources in the visible spectral region to be realized.

73 nm wavelength tuning from a frequency-doubled quantum-dot laser in PPKTP waveguides

A compact all-room-temperature CW 73-nm tunable laser source in the visible spectral region (574nm-647nm) has been demonstrated by frequency-doubling of a broadly-tunable InAs/GaAs quantum dot external-cavity diode laser in periodically-poled potassium titanyl phosphate waveguides with a maximum output power in excess of 12mW and a maximum conversion efficiency exceeding 10%. Three waveguides with different cross-sectional areas (4×4μm2, 3×5μm2 and 2x6μm2) were investigated. Introduction - Development of compact broadly tunable laser sources in the visible spectral region is currently very attractive area of research with applications ranging from photomedicine and biophotonics to confocal fluorescence microscopy and laser projection displays. In this respect, semiconductor lasers with their small size, high efficiency, reliability and low cost are very promising for realization of such sources by frequency­doubling of the infrared light in nonlinear crystal waveguides. Furthermore, the wide tunability offered by quantum-dot (QD) external-cavity diode lasers (ECDL), due to the temperature insensibility and broad gain bandwidth [1,2], is very promising for the development of tunable visible laser sources [3,4]. In this work we show a compact green-to-red tunable all­room-temperature CW laser source using a frequency-doubled InAs/GaAs QD-ECDL in periodically-poled potassium titanyl phosphate (PPKTP) crystal waveguides. This laser source generates frequency-doubled light over the 574nm-647nm wavelength range utilizing the significant difference in the effective refractive indices of high-order and low-order modes in multimode waveguides [3]. Experimental results - Experimental setup used in this work was similar to that described in [3] and consisted of a QD gain chip in the quasi­Littrow configuration and a PPKTP waveguide. Coarse wavelength tuning of the QD-ECDL between 1140 nm and 1300 nm at 20°C was possible for pump current of 1.5 A. The laser output was coupled into the PPKTP waveguide using an AR-coated 40x aspheric lens (NA ~ 0.55). The PPKTP frequency-doubling crystal (not AR coated) used in our work was 18 mm in length and was periodically poled for SHG (with the poling period of ~ 11.574 11m). The crystal contained 3 different waveguides with cross-sectional areas of ~ 4x4 11m2, 3x5 11m2 and 2x6 11m2. Both the pump laser and the PPKTP crystal were operating at room temperature. The waveguides with cross-sectional areas of 4x411m2, 3x511m2 and 2x611m2 demonstrated the tunability in the wavelength ranges of 577nm - 647nm, 576nm -643nm and 574nm - 641nm, respectively, with a maximum output power of 12.04mW at 606 nm Conclusion - We demonstrated a compact all-room-temperature broadly­tunable laser source operating in the visible spectral region between 574nm and 647nm. This laser source is based on second harmonic generation in PPKTP waveguides with different cross-sectional areas using an InAs/GaAs QD-ECDL References [I] E.U. Rafailov, M.A. Cataluna, and W. Sibbett, Nat. Phot. 1,395 (2007). [2] K.A. Fedorova, M.A. Cataluna, I. Krestnikov, D. Livshits, and E.U. Rafailov, Opt. Express 18(18), 19438-19443 (2010). [3] K.A. Fedorova, G.S. Sokolovskii, P.R. Battle, D.A. Livshits, and E.U. Rafailov, Laser Phys. Lett. 9, 790-795 (2012). [4] K.A. Fedorova,G.S. Sokolovskii, D.T. Nikitichev, P.R. Battle, I.L. Krestnikov, D.A. Livshits, and E.U. Rafailov, Opt. Lett. 38(15), 2835-2837 (2013) © 2014 IEEE.

Analysis of femtosecond laser surface patterning on bulk single-crystalline diamond

Preliminary work is reported on 2-D and 3-D microstructures written directly with a Yb:YAG 1026 nm femtosecond (fs) laser on bulk chemical vapour deposition (CVD) single-crystalline diamond. Smooth graphitic lines and other structures were written on the surface of a CVD diamond sample with a thickness of 0.7mm under low laser fluences. This capability opens up the opportunity for making electronic devices and micro-electromechanical structures on diamond substrates. The fabrication process was optimised through testing a range of laser energies at a 100 kHz repetition rate with sub-500fs pulses. These graphitic lines and structures have been characterised using optical microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy. Using these analysis techniques, the formation of sp2 and sp3 bonds is explored and the ratio between sp2 and sp3 bonds after fs laser patterning is quantified. We present the early findings from this study and characterise the relationship between the graphitic line formation and the different fs laser exposure conditions. © 2012 Taylor & Francis.

Development of Swept Source Optical Coherence Tomography and Adaptive Optics Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy: Improved Imaging Speed and Handheld Applications

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a noninvasive three-dimensional interferometric imaging technique capable of achieving micrometer scale resolution. It is now a standard of care in ophthalmology, where it is used to improve the accuracy of early diagnosis, to better understand the source of pathophysiology, and to monitor disease progression and response to therapy. In particular, retinal imaging has been the most prevalent clinical application of OCT, but researchers and companies alike are developing OCT systems for cardiology, dermatology, dentistry, and many other medical and industrial applications.

Adaptive optics (AO) is a technique used to reduce monochromatic aberrations in optical instruments. It is used in astronomical telescopes, laser communications, high-power lasers, retinal imaging, optical fabrication and microscopy to improve system performance. Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) is a noninvasive confocal imaging technique that produces high contrast two-dimensional retinal images. AO is combined with SLO (AOSLO) to compensate for the wavefront distortions caused by the optics of the eye, providing the ability to visualize the living retina with cellular resolution. AOSLO has shown great promise to advance the understanding of the etiology of retinal diseases on a cellular level.

Broadly, we endeavor to enhance the vision outcome of ophthalmic patients through improved diagnostics and personalized therapy. Toward this end, the objective of the work presented herein was the development of advanced techniques for increasing the imaging speed, reducing the form factor, and broadening the versatility of OCT and AOSLO. Despite our focus on applications in ophthalmology, the techniques developed could be applied to other medical and industrial applications. In this dissertation, a technique to quadruple the imaging speed of OCT was developed. This technique was demonstrated by imaging the retinas of healthy human subjects. A handheld, dual depth OCT system was developed. This system enabled sequential imaging of the anterior segment and retina of human eyes. Finally, handheld SLO/OCT systems were developed, culminating in the design of a handheld AOSLO system. This system has the potential to provide cellular level imaging of the human retina, resolving even the most densely packed foveal cones.