Ecology and life history affect different aspects of the population structure of 27 high-alpine plants.

A plant species' genetic population structure is the result of a complex combination of its life history, ecological preferences, position in the ecosystem and historical factors. As a result, many different statistical methods exist that measure different aspects of species' genetic structure. However, little is known about how these methods are interrelated and how they are related to a species' ecology and life history. In this study, we used the IntraBioDiv amplified fragment length polymorphisms data set from 27 high-alpine species to calculate eight genetic summary statistics that we jointly correlate to a set of six ecological and life-history traits. We found that there is a large amount of redundancy among the calculated summary statistics and that there is a significant association with the matrix of species traits. In a multivariate analysis, two main aspects of population structure were visible among the 27 species. The first aspect is related to the species' dispersal capacities and the second is most likely related to the species' postglacial recolonization of the Alps. Furthermore, we found that some summary statistics, most importantly Mantel's r and Jost's D, show different behaviour than expected based on theory. We therefore advise caution in drawing too strong conclusions from these statistics.

L'équité d'accès aux ressources en eau : fin ou moyen d'amélioration de l'efficacité de l'irrigation ? : la gestion des ressources en eau dans l'état du Gujarat (Inde) dans la perpective de la political ecology

La thèse présentée ici est le résultat d'une étroite collaboration avec une ONG indienne, AKRSP(I), intervenant dans le développement de l'irrigation au Gujarat depuis plus de 25 ans. Un SIG prototype a été mis en oeuvre et nous permet de proposer ime analyse spatiale et quantitative de l'action de cette ONG ainsi qu'une réflexion plus générale sur les leviers de mise en valeur et de gestion des ressources en eau à des fins agricoles. On peut souligner trois principaux enseignements: Les perspectives d'application des SIG au sein des ONG sont manifestes. Les exigences des bailleurs de fonds peuvent néanmoins faire obstacle à leur développement car, indi-rectement, ils favorisent la mise en oeuvre de SI voués à la justification plutôt qu'à la planification et au suivi des programmes d'actions. Ce résultat soulève la question de la pertinence de l'encadrement, des critères d'évaluation et de la conditionnalité de l'aide publique au développement. Les ONG ont un fort potentiel pour participer à la mise en valeur des ressources en eau en Inde et aider à relever le défi agro-démographique indien, en particulier dans les zones marginales où les services étatiques sont en retrait. Les stratégies d'action basées principalement sur l'application des instruments économiques et techniques doivent cependant être modifiées. Nous montrons qu'elles favorisent une inégalité d'accès aux ressources qui débouche sur une efficacité limitée des pratiques d'irrigation, sur un plan agro-technique. Ces résultats soulignent la nécessité de poursuivre une réflexion critique des discours et solutions dominants en matière de gestion des ressources en eau. Deux pistes d'amélioration sont avancées: 1. considérer l'équité d'accès comme un moyen d'optimiser la gestion de la ressource (limiter le volume d'eau par agriculteur pour encourager les choix de cultures irriguées peu consommatrices et l'adoption des technologies d'économie d'eau), 2. prêter attention à l'ordre dans lequel les différents instruments de gestion disponibles sont employés afin de les articuler dans un séquençage temporel pertinent. La Political Ecology apparait comme un cadre conceptuel très pertinent pour engager cette réflexion critique. Elle permet d'intégrer différentes échelles d'asymétries de pouvoirs à la compréhension des situations et des blocages observables localement : inégalités de capabilités et forces socio-politiques à l'échelle locale, politiques agro-industrielles (coton) et jeux d'alliances politiques des castes à l'échelle nationale, discours et conflits idéologiques ou orientations stratégiques des bailleurs de fonds à l'échelle internationale... Notre recherche empirique contribue modestement au développement de cette Political Ecology de la mise en valeur et de la gestion des ressources en eau. - The present research is based on a close collaboration with an indian NGO, AKRSP(I), which is active in the development of irrigation facilities in Gujarat for the past 25 years. We built a GIS prototype providing quantitative and spatial datas to analyse the NGO intervention and propose a general reflection about water resources development and management issues. Three main findings may be emphasized : The potential of GIS within the workings of an NGO is obvious, as an information ma-nagement tool as much as for developing analytical capacity. However, financial backers expectations may not favour a relevant development of this technology. Indirectly, they promote Information Systems built to justify rather than to plan or monitor action pro¬grammes. This raises the question of stricter framework, conditionality criters and stan¬dardised assessment indicators surrounding official development assistance. There is strong potential that NGOs can assist with the improvement of water resources in India. They can help in overcoming Indian demographic-related agricultural challenges, especially in marginal rural areas neglected by state services. However, intervention strategies mainly based on technical and economic management tools has to be adapted. We found that they lead to inequitable access and distribution of water resources what induces a low efficiency of irrigation practices from an agro-technical point of view. These results underline the need to go further in criticizing dominant ideas and guidelines regarding water resources management. We suggest two other options : 1. to consider equitable access has a tool to improve the effective use of water for agricul¬tural purposes (limiting the volume of water available per farmer would encourage them to adopt low water consumption crops and water saving technics), 2. to consider more carefully the order of use of the various management tools available and to structure them in a relevant sequence. Here, Political Ecology seems to be a relevant conceptual framework to enter into such a critical reflection, integrating different levels and scales of political asymmetries at the core of environmental issues. Indeed, the understanding of regional water situations and social stumbling blocks needs not only to consider local capabilities and socio-political inequities, but also agro-industrial policy (e.i. cotton) and caste political alliances at a national scale, as well as ideological and narrative struggles or strategical orientations of financial backers at an international level. Our empirical research modestly contributes to the development of such a Political Ecology of water resources development and management.

Natural genetic variation in Arabidopsis: tools, traits and prospects for evolutionary ecology.

BACKGROUND: The model plant Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) shows a wide range of genetic and trait variation among wild accessions. Because of its unparalleled biological and genomic resources, the potential of Arabidopsis for molecular genetic analysis of this natural variation has increased dramatically in recent years. SCOPE: Advanced genomics has accelerated molecular phylogenetic analysis and gene identification by quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping and/or association mapping in Arabidopsis. In particular, QTL mapping utilizing natural accessions is now becoming a major strategy of gene isolation, offering an alternative to artificial mutant lines. Furthermore, the genomic information is used by researchers to uncover the signature of natural selection acting on the genes that contribute to phenotypic variation. The evolutionary significance of such genes has been evaluated in traits such as disease resistance and flowering time. However, although molecular hallmarks of selection have been found for the genes in question, a corresponding ecological scenario of adaptive evolution has been difficult to prove. Ecological strategies, including reciprocal transplant experiments and competition experiments, and utilizing near-isogenic lines of alleles of interest will be a powerful tool to measure the relative fitness of phenotypic and/or allelic variants. CONCLUSIONS: As the plant model organism, Arabidopsis provides a wealth of molecular background information for evolutionary genetics. Because genetic diversity between and within Arabidopsis populations is much higher than anticipated, combining this background information with ecological approaches might well establish Arabidopsis as a model organism for plant evolutionary ecology.

Signaling pathways controlling induced resistance to insect herbivores in Arabidopsis.

Insect attack triggers changes in transcript level in plants that are mediated predominantly by jasmonic acid (JA). The implication of ethylene (ET), salicylic acid (SA), and other signals in this response is less understood and was monitored with a microarray containing insect- and defense-regulated genes. Arabidopsis thaliana mutants coi1-1, ein2-1, and sid2-1 impaired in JA, ET, and SA signaling pathways were challenged with the specialist small cabbage white (Pieris rapae) and the generalist Egyptian cotton worm (Spodoptera littoralis). JA was shown to be a major signal controlling the upregulation of defense genes in response to either insect but was found to suppress changes in transcript level only in response to P. rapae. Larval growth was affected by the JA-dependent defenses, but S. littoralis gained much more weight on coi1-1 than P. rapae. ET and SA mutants had an altered transcript profile after S. littoralis herbivory but not after P. rapae herbivory. In contrast, both insects yielded similar transcript signatures in the abscisic acid (ABA)-biosynthetic mutants aba2-1 and aba3-1, and ABA controlled transcript levels both negatively and positively in insect-attacked plants. In accordance with the transcript signature, S. littoralis larvae performed better on aba2-1 mutants. This study reveals a new role for ABA in defense against insects in Arabidopsis and identifies some components important for plant resistance to herbivory.

Evolution of specialization: a phylogenetic study of host range in the red milkweed beetle (Tetraopes tetraophthalmus).

Specialization is common in most lineages of insect herbivores, one of the most diverse groups of organisms on earth. To address how and why specialization is maintained over evolutionary time, we hypothesized that plant defense and other ecological attributes of potential host plants would predict the performance of a specialist root-feeding herbivore (the red milkweed beetle, Tetraopes tetraophthalmus). Using a comparative phylogenetic and functional trait approach, we assessed the determinants of insect host range across 18 species of Asclepias. Larval survivorship decreased with increasing phylogenetic distance from the true host, Asclepias syriaca, suggesting that adaptation to plant traits drives specialization. Among several root traits measured, only cardenolides (toxic defense chemicals) correlated with larval survival, and cardenolides also explained the phylogenetic distance effect in phylogenetically controlled multiple regression analyses. Additionally, milkweed species having a known association with other Tetraopes beetles were better hosts than species lacking Tetraopes herbivores, and milkweeds with specific leaf area values (a trait related to leaf function and habitat affiliation) similar to those of A. syriaca were better hosts than species having divergent values. We thus conclude that phylogenetic distance is an integrated measure of phenotypic and ecological attributes of Asclepias species, especially defensive cardenolides, which can be used to explain specialization and constraints on host shifts over evolutionary time.

Ecology of species living on dead wood : lessons for dead wood management

Abstract

Insect oral secretions suppress wound-induced responses in Arabidopsis.

The induction of plant defences and their subsequent suppression by insects is thought to be an important factor in the evolutionary arms race between plants and herbivores. Although insect oral secretions (OS) contain elicitors that trigger plant immunity, little is known about the suppressors of plant defences. The Arabidopsis thaliana transcriptome was analysed in response to wounding and OS treatment. The expression of several wound-inducible genes was suppressed after the application of OS from two lepidopteran herbivores, Pieris brassicae and Spodoptera littoralis. This inhibition was correlated with enhanced S. littoralis larval growth, pointing to an effective role of insect OS in suppressing plant defences. Two genes, an ERF/AP2 transcription factor and a proteinase inhibitor, were then studied in more detail. OS-induced suppression lasted for at least 48 h, was independent of the jasmonate or salicylate pathways, and was not due to known elicitors. Interestingly, insect OS attenuated leaf water loss, suggesting that insects have evolved mechanisms to interfere with the induction of water-stress-related defences.

Ecology and the challenge of a multifunctional use of soil

Soil zoology and soil ecology have become very active fields of research since the early 1990s. A search in the ISI Web of Science databases showed a steady increase in publications about that theme over the last two decades, and 3,612 bibliographic references were found for that theme for the period of 2004 to 2008. The researches covered mostly soil environmental issues, toxicology and ecology. The issue of theoretical development in soil ecology is discussed, and arguments are presented against the idea that the soil ecology theory is deficient. Finally, the need for a general model of soil function and soil management is discussed and some options are presented to reach this goal.

Habitat fragmentation, ecology and sexual selection in forest bird species in Monteverde, Costa Rica

Abstract Forest fragmentation is often associated with local extinction and changes in species abundance patterns. The main topic of this thesis is the effect of forest fragmentation on birds in Monteverde, Costa Rica. This thesis also studies aspects of sexual selection and ecology of Long-tailed Manakins, Chiroxiphia Linearis. Chapter 1 investigates bird species assemblages in two degrees of forest fragmentation. It is shown that the distribution, abundance and diversity of forest bird species are strongly influenced by the amount of forest in the landscape matrix. Presence of cattle within the forest influences the presence of some bird species. The prevalence and intensity of ticks and blood parasites on birds in relation to fragmentation is described in Chapter 2. Overall tick prevalence is 3%. Understory birds are significantly more infested with ticks than species at intermediate heights. Tick prevalence on birds does not differ significantly between two degrees of forest fragmentation and individual tick loads tend to be higher in High- than in Low-fragmentation sites. Infestations by the blood parasites Haemoproteus sp. was low except in white-eared ground sparrow, Melozone leucotis, that is 28% and is significantly higher in High- than in Low-fragmentation sites. In chapter 3 results on the ecology and habitat movements of the Bare-necked Umbrellabird, Cephalopterus glabricollis, are presented. The abundance of umbrellabirds at high elevations during the breeding season coincides with the highest peak of fruit abundance. Birds leave the protected area during the non-breeding season moving to unprotected forest fragments. In chapter 4 ontogenetic changes in feather morphology through sexual maturity in Long-tailed Manakins are described. In adult males, rectrices length is positively correlated to testis volume. Changes in male morphology during ontogeny in the long-tailed manakin appear to be associated with their specific-display behaviours. Significant interpopulation differences in the morphology of Long-tailed Manakins are shown in chapter 5. These differences are more accentuated in morphological traits related to flight displays. A field experiment demonstrates that long rectrices impose flying costs for males and females. A reduction in flying ability was found to be strongest in males from a population presenting the highest degree of sexual dimorphism. Résumé La fragmentation des forêts est souvent associée avec des modifications dans l'abondance des espèces et des extinctions locales. Le thème principale de cette thèse est l'étude de l'effet de la fragmentation des forêts sur les oiseaux de Monteverde, Costa Rica. Elle décrit par ailleurs certains aspects de la sélection sexuelle et l'écologie du manakin à longue queue, Chiroxiphia linearis. Dans le Chapitre 1 je montre que la distribution, l'abondance et la diversité des assemblages d'oiseaux vivant dans la forêt sont fortement influencées pas le degré de fragmentation de celle ci. Par ailleurs, la présence ou l'absence de bétail dans les forêts influence la présence de certaines espèces d'oiseaux. Dans le chapitre 2 j'ai étudié la prévalence et l'intensité d'infestation par des tiques ainsi que la présence de parasites sanguins chez les oiseaux en relation avec la fragmentation des forêts. La prévalence globale de tiques est de 3 %, les oiseaux vivant au niveau du sol étaient plus souvent infectés par des tiques que les espèces se déplaçant à un niveau plus élevé. La prévalence de tiques sur les oiseaux n'était pas significativement différente entre les paysages avec différentes fragmentations. Les parasites sanguins du genre Haemoproteus sp. étaient présents à très basse fréquence à l'exception chez Melozone leucotis ou la prevalence était de 28% et significativement plus élevée chez les oiseaux vivant dans les forêts à forte fragmentation. Dans le Chapitre 3 je présente des résultats sur l'écologie et les mouvements entre habitats chez le "Bare-necked umbrellabird", Cephalopterus glabricollis. Cette espèce endémique du Costa Rica niche à haute altitude durant la période d'abondance des fruits et réalise une migration altitudinale vers des zones basses durant la saison de non reproduction. Dans le chapitre 4 je présente les changements ontogénétiques dans la morphologie du plumage des manakins à longue queue. Chez les mâles, les changements de morphologie semblent être associés avec leurs comportements de parade spécifiques. Dans le chapitre 5 je présente des différences morphologiques significative entre deux populations chez le manakin à longue queue et je montre que la capacité de vols chez les mâles est plus fortement influencée dans la population avec le degré de dimorphisme sexuel le plus prononcé.

Evolutionary ecology of the colour-dimorphic rewardless orchid "Dactylorhiza sambucina"

Abstract Phenotypic polymorphism is an ideal system to study natural selection in wild populations, because it allows tracking population genetic changes by means of phenotypic changes. A wide variety of polymorphic traits have been studied in numerous animals and plants, as for example colour patterns in moths, snails and birds, human laterality, male reproductive strategies, plant morphology or mating systems. This thesis focused on Dactylorhiza sarnbucina, a rewardless European orchid species, showing a striking flower colour polymorphism, with either yellow or red flowered individuals co-occurring in natural populations. Several studies have investigated its evolutionary ecology since Nilsson's seminal paper in 1980, with a particular emphasis in the evolution and maintenance of its colour polymorphism. One of the main selective forces proposed to maintain this colour polymorphism was pollinator driven negative frequency-dependent selection (NFDS), when each morph is advantaged when rare, and comparatively disadvantaged when common. However, other investigators have recently questioned the occurrence of NFDS, and proposed alternatively that fluctuating selection may maintain this colour polymorphism. In this thesis, we aimed at reviewing and synthesizing these different studies, and also brought our contribution on D. sambucina reproductive ecology. Because numerous hypotheses have still to be tested, we concluded by saying that we are a long way from understanding the evolution and dynamics of colour polymorphism in natural D. sambucina populations. Beside the debated question of colour polymorphism maintenance, one question remained to be tested: what are the consequences of polymorphism per se. We experimentally addressed this question using artificial populations of D. sambucina, and found no relationship between population phenotypic diversity and orchid pollination success. This finding suggest that polymorphism itself was not an advantage for deceptive species such D sambucina, contrarily to the expectations. Finally, we suggest potential research perspectives that could allow a better understanding of the evolutionary ecology of this species. Résumé Le polymorphisme phénotypique est un système biologique idéal pour étudier l'action de la sélection en populations naturelles, grâce à la possibilité de suivre les changements génétiques de la population en étudiant les phénotypes des individus. De très nombreuses études ont montré du polymorphisme phénotypique chez les animaux, par exemple la latéralité chez l'Homme, la coloration des escargots ou des oiseaux. Dans le règne végétal, le polymorphisme est souvent associé à des traits du système de reproduction. Cette thèse est centrée sur une espèce d'orchidée Européenne qui ne produit pas de nectar, Dactylorhiza sambucina. Cette espèce présente des individus à fleurs jaunes et des individus à fleurs rouge, généralement présents en mélange dans les populations naturelles. Plusieurs études ont investigué l'écologie évolutive de cette espèce depuis 25 ans, avec comme thème central l'évolution et le maintien de ce polymorphisme. La principale force sélective proposée pour maintenir ce polymorphisme de couleur est la sélection fréquence-dépendante, exercée par le comportement des pollinisateurs. Chacun des deux variants de couleur est favorisé quand il est rare, et défavorisé quand il devient commun. Bien que ce mécanisme semble agir, certains auteurs doutent de son importance, et ont proposé que les variations temporelles ou spatiales des forces de sélection puisse maintenir le polymorphisme de couleur chez D. sambucina. Dans cette thèse, nous avons voulu résumer et synthétiser les résultats de ces différentes études, et aussi présenter des données nouvelles concernant la reproduction de cette espèce. À la vue de ces résultats, il apparait que de nombreux points nécessitent des expériences complémentaires, et que la compréhension de ce système biologique est encore fragmentaire. Nous nous sommes également intéressés à une question laissée en suspens dans la littérature: le polymorphisme de couleur en soit confère-t-il un avantage à l'espèce, comme proposé par certains auteurs? En construisant des populations artificielles de D. sambucina, nous avons pu montrer que le polymorphisme de couleur n'augmente pas le succès reproducteur de l'espèce. Nous terminons ce travail de recherche en proposant plusieurs axes de recherche pouvant conduire à une meilleure compréhension de l'écologie et de l'évolution de cette espèce.

Sallie Chisholm (1947): Recipient of the 2013 Ramon Margalef Prize in Ecology.

The Ramon Margalez Prize in Ecology is awarded annually by the Goverment of Catalonia to recognize people who have distinghished themselves in the field of ecological science. Among the events that are held in connection with the award-giving ceremony, the University of Barcelona hosts a seminar by the awardee followed by a roundtable discussion.

Molecular and social regulation of worker division of labour in fire ants.

Reproductive and worker division of labour (DOL) is a hallmark of social insect societies. Despite a long-standing interest in worker DOL, the molecular mechanisms regulating this process have only been investigated in detail in honey bees, and little is known about the regulatory mechanisms operating in other social insects. In the fire ant Solenopsis invicta, one of the most studied ant species, workers are permanently sterile and the tasks performed are modulated by the worker's internal state (age and size) and the outside environment (social environment), which potentially includes the effect of the queen presence through chemical communication via pheromones. However, the molecular mechanisms underpinning these processes are unknown. Using a whole-genome microarray platform, we characterized the molecular basis for worker DOL and we explored how a drastic change in the social environment (i.e. the sudden loss of the queen) affects global gene expression patterns of worker ants. We identified numerous genes differentially expressed between foraging and nonforaging workers in queenright colonies. With a few exceptions, these genes appear to be distinct from those involved in DOL in bees and wasps. Interestingly, after the queen was removed, foraging workers were no longer distinct from nonforaging workers at the transcriptomic level. Furthermore, few expression differences were detected between queenright and queenless workers when we did not consider the task performed. Thus, the social condition of the colony (queenless vs. queenright) appears to impact the molecular pathways underlying worker task performance, providing strong evidence for social regulation of DOL in S. invicta.

Silene as a model system in ecology and evolution.

The genus Silene, studied by Darwin, Mendel and other early scientists, is re-emerging as a system for studying interrelated questions in ecology, evolution and developmental biology. These questions include sex chromosome evolution, epigenetic control of sex expression, genomic conflict and speciation. Its well-studied interactions with the pathogen Microbotryum has made Silene a model for the evolution and dynamics of disease in natural systems, and its interactions with herbivores have increased our understanding of multi-trophic ecological processes and the evolution of invasiveness. Molecular tools are now providing new approaches to many of these classical yet unresolved problems, and new progress is being made through combining phylogenetic, genomic and molecular evolutionary studies with ecological and phenotypic data.

Venom alkaloid and cuticular hydrocarbon profiles are associated with social organization, queen fertility status, and queen genotype in the fire ant Solenopsis invicta.

Queens in social insect colonies advertise their presence in the colony to: a) attract workers' attention and care; b) gain acceptance by workers as replacement or supplemental reproductives; c) prevent reproductive development in nestmates. We analyzed the chemical content of whole body surface extracts of adult queens of different developmental and reproductive stages, and of adult workers from monogyne (single colony queen) and polygyne (multiple colony queens) forms of the fire ant Solenopsis invicta. We found that the composition of the most abundant components, venom alkaloids, differed between queens and workers, as well as between reproductive and non-reproductive queens. Additionally, workers of the two forms could be distinguished by alkaloid composition. Finally, sexually mature, non-reproductive queens from polygyne colonies differed in their proportions of cis-piperidine alkaloids, depending on their Gp-9 genotype, although the difference disappeared once they became functional reproductives. Among the unsaturated cuticular hydrocarbons characteristic of queens, there were differences in amounts of alkenes/alkadienes between non-reproductive polygyne queens of different Gp-9 genotypes, between non-reproductive and reproductive queens, and between polygyne and monogyne reproductive queens, with the amounts increasing at a relatively higher rate through reproductive ontogeny in queens bearing the Gp-9 b allele. Given that the genotype-specific piperidine differences reflect differences in rates of reproductive maturation between queens, we speculate that these abundant and unique compounds have been co-opted to serve in fertility signaling, while the cuticular hydrocarbons now play a complementary role in regulation of social organization by signaling queen Gp-9 genotype.