Kansallisen kulttuurin vaikutus Saksan ja Suomen kirjanpitokäytäntöihin

Taloudellinen globalisaatio ja pääomamarkkinoiden avautuminen ovat johtaneet tarpeeseen informoida yrityksen sidosryhmiä eri maissa ja tuottaa kansainvälisesti vertailukelpoista tilinpäätösinformaatiota. Yhtenäistämiskeskustelussa etenkin kansainvälisten IFRS-standardien (International Financial Reporting Standards) maailmanlaajuinen käyttöönottaminen on herättänyt kasvavaa kiinnostusta siihen, miten kansalliset kirjanpitokäytännöt poikkeavat toisistaan, ja missä määrin kansallisen kulttuurin voidaan nähdä vaikuttavan eroavaisuuksiin maiden välillä. Tässä tutkielmassa tutkitaan kansallisen kulttuurin vaikutusta kirjanpitokäytäntöihin ja niissä havaittaviin eroihin erityisesti Saksan ja Suomen välillä Tutkielmassa sovelletaan Hofsteden (1980) määritelmää kansallisesta kulttuurista mielen kollektiivisena ohjautumisena ja kulttuurillisina arvoina, jotka yhteiskunnan jäsenet jakavat. Tutkielmassa pyritään myös ottamaan huomioon kulttuurin käsitteen monimuotoisuus ja tuomaan esille kulttuurin ilmeneminen yhteiskunnan institutionaalisten tekijöiden kautta. Tämän tutkielman tutkimusote on käsiteanalyyttinen eli se pohjautuu aikaisempaan käsiteanalyysiin ja aiheen empiirisiin tutkimustuloksiin. Teoreettisena viitekehyksenä tutkimuksessa käytetään Hofsteden (1980) muotoilemia kansallisen kulttuurin arvoulottuvuuksia sekä niihin pohjautuvia Grayn (1988) laskentatoimen alakulttuurin arvoulottuvuuksia. Näiden pohjalta tutkielmassa luodaan malli, jonka mukaan kansallisen kulttuurin nähdään vaikuttavan kansalliseen kirjanpitokäytäntöön. Kulttuurin vaikutuksen havaitaan olevan monissa tapauksissa epäsuora ja sitä voidaan suoremmin analysoida yhteiskunnan institutionaalisten tekijöiden, tärkeimpänä lainsäädäntö- ja verotusjärjestelmän kautta. Tutkielmassa saadaan tulokseksi, ettei Hofsteden (1980) kansallisen kulttuurin arvoulottuvuuksien voida nähdä selittävän kansallisten kirjanpitokäytäntöjen eroja Saksan ja Suomen välillä, johtuen etenkin maiden historiallisesti läheisistä kulttuurillisista ja kaupallisista suhteista. Molemmissa maissa on lisäksi historiallisista syistä samankaltaiset pankkikeskeiset rahoitusmarkkinat ja verotuksella on keskeinen vaikutus kirjanpitokäytäntöön. Suomen kirjanpitokäytännön voidaan nähdä olevan Grayn (1988) ulottuvuuksilla lähempänä ammattimaisuutta ja joustavuutta kuin Saksan. Tämän nähdään selittyvän sillä, että Suomen kirjanpitokäytäntö on taustaltaan teoriaperusteista, kun taas Saksan vahvemmin lakiperusteista. Saksan kirjanpitokäytäntö on taas konservatiivisempaa ja läpinäkymättömämpää kuin Suomen kirjanpitokäytäntö, vaikkakin molempia maita on kritisoitu näistä kirjanpidon ominaisuuksista. EU:n ja IASB:n kansainvälisten harmonisointipyrkimyksien seurauksena molempien maiden kirjanpitokäytännöt kuitenkin edelleen lähentyvät kansainvälistä kirjanpitokäytäntöä.

Reputational Risk Management as a key element for business continuity and value maximization

This thesis reveals the topic of reputational risk management as a key element for business continuity and value maximization. The purpose of the work is to investigate reputational risk from the side of its definition, management (including legal requirements on this risk category) and measurement and to analyse reputational risk’s impact on business continuity and value maximization. To be able to do this, different respective articles, reports of financial institutions are gathered and constructive summaries and analysis are made. In order to deeply investigate the impact of reputational risk on business continuity and value maximization, it was chosen to study it from three aspects: 1) check the impact of stock valuation of 7 companies that experienced reputational catastrophe / risk, 2) analyse a case study on disagreements in management of reputational risk among case companies and impact on their respective performance, and 3) conduct a survey of financial sector companies in Liechtenstein to see how reputational risk management works in practice. The findings of the research showed a significant impact of reputation decadence on company’s value and trading volume, and showed crucial importance of post-crisis management for the company’s financial performance. The results of the qualitative research based on survey proved that companies consider reputational risk management as a one of the key elements for their business continuity and value maximization.

La reconfiguración economica internacional

The international economic reconfiguration. The developed and developing countries have adjusted with varying degrees of success to the new international order. The world's evolution has not stopped: Europe and the emerging Asian economies, are struggling to create a multipolar World. In the periphery, some countries (Asia) are modernizing at a fast rate, while others (Latin America) are lagging behind and in need to revise their growth strategies. The decentralization of production and trade driven by transnational firms are shifting the geographic distribution of investment and employment. As a result, the industrialized countries have ceased to provide the bulk of the world's savings, changing somehow the foundations of the international financial system.

Still the century of government savings banks? The Caixa Econômica Federal

This article explores general concerns about government banking, social inclusion, and democracy through case study of the Brazilian federal government savings bank (Caixa Econômica Federal). Review of government savings banks in Brazilian history suggests that these institutions have been at the center of domestic political economy, expanding and contracting under a variety of political regimes and economic conditions. Since capitalization to meet central bank and Basel Accord guidelines in 2001, the Caixa has attempted to modernize, continue to serve as agent for government policies, and expand both popular credit and savings and investment banking activities.

Estratégias periféricas sessenta anos depois do acordo de Bretton Woods

After sixty years, the Bretton Woods Agreement continuous to be a reference for the debates concerning institutional organization of the international monetary system. This paper compares some features of the arrangements that have emerged in that context with the recent wave of institutional reforms in the international financial architecture. We explore some arguments suggesting that, in an instable financial environment, is possible to envisage a strong rationality in strategies for emerging economies associated with a more active capital flows and exchange rate management. Apparently, those strategies are not dissimilar to the ones today's advanced countries had used in Bretton Woods Era.

External debt in developing economies: assessment and policy issues

More than one decade after the external debt restructuring (the Brady Plan), a great amount of literature has been published concerning the balance sheet factors in developing countries. The staff of international multilateral institutions joined with reputable academics in this great controversy. The external debt problem of the developing countries is back and once more reflections on its cause and on policy recommendations are analytically distinct. Our main task is to reflect on the recent external debt dynamics and assess how this debt has evolved. Our findings indicate that the susceptibility of some developing countries to default is associated with global imbalance, that is, the way they borrow.

Liquidez internacional e ciclo reflexo: algumas observações para a América Latina

International liquidity and reflex cycle: some observations to Latin America. The international financial instability of the 1990 has been analysed in several occasions on Minskyan perspectives. The paper is based on this theoretical approach and intends to demonstrate that the financial fragility hypothesis is very useful to the analysis of the cycle in peripheral economies, which real performance is associated to the availability of international liquidity. The analysis is based on three Latin American countries: Brazil, Argentina and Mexico.

Fluxos de capitais, fragilidade externa e regimes cambiais: uma revisão teórica

Capital Flows, External Fragility and Currency Regimes: A Theoretical Review. The major integration and deregulation of the international financial markets increased the degree of interdependence and risk of incompatibility between the financial and monetary policy adopted by different countries. The consequences of these facts are the financial instability and the currency crisis. In this article we develop arguments advocating that independent of the currency regime adopted the national policy makers should take into account, between other factors, the major capital mobility and the integrations of markets. One of the corollaries of our analyses is that countries should pursue policies that reduces the degree of short-term capital volatile by the adoption of capital controls or though measures of prudential supervision.

Rethinking the economics of capital mobility and capital controls

This paper reexamines the issue of international financial capital mobility, which is today's economic orthodoxy. Discussion is often framed in terms of the impossible trinity. That framing distorts discussion by representing capital mobility as having equal significance with sovereign monetary policy and control over exchange rates. It also distorts discussion by ignoring possibilities for coordinated monetary policy and exchange rates, and for managed capital flows. The case for capital mobility rests on neo-classical economic efficiency arguments and neo-liberal political arguments. The case against capital mobility is based on Keynesian macroeconomic inefficiency arguments, neo-Walrasian market failure arguments, and neo-Marxian arguments regarding distortion of the social structure of accumulation. Close examination shows the case for capital mobility to be extremely flimsy, pointing to the ideological dimension behind today's policy orthodoxy.

A arquitetura do sistema financeiro internacional contemporâneo

This paper discusses some features of financial institutions and instruments which originated the financial crisis triggered by increasing default rate, household real estate and financial asset depreciation combined with U.S. subprime mortgages. The first part presents major crisis events in a chronological order. The second part describes the interconnection of the institutions and markets which engendered a global shadow financial system. The third part focuses on an overview of measures taken by government authorities and large banks to bring about possible solutions for the global financial crisis.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF A TACTICAL ASSET ALLOCATION – Evidence from the Black–Litterman model based fixed income portfolio

Over time the demand for quantitative portfolio management has increased among financial institutions but there is still a lack of practical tools. In 2008 EDHEC Risk and Asset Management Research Centre conducted a survey of European investment practices. It revealed that the majority of asset or fund management companies, pension funds and institutional investors do not use more sophisticated models to compensate the flaws of the Markowitz mean-variance portfolio optimization. Furthermore, tactical asset allocation managers employ a variety of methods to estimate return and risk of assets, but also need sophisticated portfolio management models to outperform their benchmarks. Recent development in portfolio management suggests that new innovations are slowly gaining ground, but still need to be studied carefully. This thesis tries to provide a practical tactical asset allocation (TAA) application to the Black–Litterman (B–L) approach and unbiased evaluation of B–L models’ qualities. Mean-variance framework, issues related to asset allocation decisions and return forecasting are examined carefully to uncover issues effecting active portfolio management. European fixed income data is employed in an empirical study that tries to reveal whether a B–L model based TAA portfolio is able outperform its strategic benchmark. The tactical asset allocation utilizes Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model to create return forecasts from lagged values of asset classes as well as economic variables. Sample data (31.12.1999–31.12.2012) is divided into two. In-sample data is used for calibrating a strategic portfolio and the out-of-sample period is for testing the tactical portfolio against the strategic benchmark. Results show that B–L model based tactical asset allocation outperforms the benchmark portfolio in terms of risk-adjusted return and mean excess return. The VAR-model is able to pick up the change in investor sentiment and the B–L model adjusts portfolio weights in a controlled manner. TAA portfolio shows promise especially in moderately shifting allocation to more risky assets while market is turning bullish, but without overweighting investments with high beta. Based on findings in thesis, Black–Litterman model offers a good platform for active asset managers to quantify their views on investments and implement their strategies. B–L model shows potential and offers interesting research avenues. However, success of tactical asset allocation is still highly dependent on the quality of input estimates.

Integração financeira, poupança externa e convergência de renda: teoria e evidência

The conventional argument favoring capital controls elimination is based on the predictions from the neoclassical model: free international capital mobility would allow capital flows from country where capital is abundant to countries where capital is scarce and the outcome in a global perspective is efficient allocation of savings and income convergence. Within this perspective, financial integration would be particularly beneficial for developing countries resulting in external savings import, temporary increase in per-capita GDP growth rate and a permanent increase in the per-capita GDP level. Using data for a sample of 105 countries from 1980 to 2004 the evidences show that capitals flows from developing to developed countries and that international financial integration and external savings do not increase the conditional convergence rate.

Trajetórias e interesses: os EUA e as finanças globalizadas num contexto de crise e transição

This paper aims to analyze the elements of continuity and discontinuity in American foreign policy from the nineties. In this regard, it emphasizes the importance of financial issues within the scope of the U.S. government strategies for foreign integration and tries to analyze comparatively the Republicans and Democrats government of the period, ending with some prospective questions concerning the Democratic government of President Obama in the context of international economic crisis.

Política fiscal anticíclica, crise financeira internacional e crescimento econômico no Brasil

This study analyzes the long run equilibrium relationship and causality between economic growth and public expenditure in Brazil covering the period 1980-2008. The empirical results of the Granger causality test in a multivariate framework have shown up the importance of public investments not only to face the adverse effects of the international financial crisis, but also in stimulating the economic growth. Also, the results indicate the need of controlling the growing path of other current expenditure, social security and public debt.

Causação circular do crescimento das economias em desenvolvimento: uma ponte entre as abordagens evolucionária e pós keynesiana

Based on the Post Keynesian approach and on the Evolutionary literature, this study seeks to demonstrate the causal relationships between the National Innovation System and the national and international financial systems. This study shows that there is a circular causation in the less developed economies that contributes to the immaturity of its National Innovation System and to its structural external vulnerability. Conclusions highlight that the cycles in the less developed economies mirror the cycles of international liquidity.