Comparação entre três esquemas de indução da ovulação para inseminação intra-uterina com relação à espessura endometrial e taxa de gravidez

OBJETIVO: comparar as taxas de gravidez e as espessuras endometriais médias obtidas com a utilização de três esquemas de indução da ovulação para inseminação intra-uterina (IIU). MÉTODOS: foram avaliados retrospectivamente 110 ciclos de IIU, sendo estes divididos em três grupos, de acordo com o protocolo de indução da ovulação utilizado: 100 mg de citrato de clomifeno (CC) do 3º ao 7º dia do ciclo (grupo CC, n=24); acrescentou-se ao esquema do grupo CC 75 UI de gonadotrofina menopáusica humana (hMG) nos dias 3, 5 e 7 do ciclo (grupo CC+hMG, n=29) e hMG isolado, 75 UI do 3º ao 8º dia do ciclo (grupo hMG, n=57). Para análise estatística foi utilizado o teste t de Student para comparação entre médias e o teste c² para comparação entre proporções. RESULTADOS: a média de idade das pacientes no início do tratamento foi de 33,3 anos (23 a 40 anos), sendo similar nos três grupos. A espessura endometrial média no dia da aplicação da gonadotrofina coriônica humana (hCG) foi significativamente maior no grupo hMG (10,2±0,2 mm) em comparação à obtida nos grupos CC e CC + hMG (7,9±0,4 e 8,7±0,2 mm, respectivamente, p<0,001). A taxa de gestação clínica média foi de 18,2%, sendo semelhante nos três grupos (grupo CC=12,5%; grupo CC+hMG=24,1%; grupo hMG=19,3%). CONCLUSÃO: observou-se maior espessura endometrial média com o uso isolado de hMG em comparação ao uso isolado de CC ou à associação CC+hMG. Não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre as taxas de gestação clínica obtidas com os três esquemas de indução da ovulação utilizados (CC isolado, associação de CC e hMG e hMG isolado).

Diagnóstico pré-natal de displasia camptomélica: relato de caso

A displasia camptomélica pertence a um grupo heterogêneo e raro de displasias esqueléticas letais, que se caracterizam pelo desenvolvimento anormal dos ossos e das cartilagens. É causada por uma mutação no gene Sox9 (SRY-like HMG [high-mobility group] BOX 9) do cromossomo 17 e transmitida pela via autossômica dominante. Apresenta como principais características o encurtamento e o encurvamento dos ossos longos, principalmente nos membros inferiores. Também está associada a outras graves malformações esqueléticas e extra-esqueléticas. O estudo do cariótipo pode revelar incompatibilidade entre o genótipo e o fenótipo genital. A maioria dos portadores morre nos períodos fetal e neonatal precoce. A ultra-sonografia é essencial para a elucidação diagnóstica pré-natal.

Conidiobolomicose em ovinos no Estado de Mato Grosso

Relatam-se os achados epidemiológicos, clínicos, patológicos e micológicos de conidiobolomicose em ovinos no Estado de Mato Grosso. A doença ocorreu em uma propriedade no município de Nobres, em um rebanho com 40 ovelhas adultas, entre os meses de janeiro a junho de 2007. Aproximadamente 30% dos ovinos da propriedade adoeceram e todos os doentes morreram em curso clínico de 2-5 semanas. O quadro clínico foi caracterizado por apatia, emagrecimento, dificuldade respiratória com dispnéia, respiração ruidosa e oral, secreção nasal mucosa ou sero-sanguinolenta, exoftalmia unilateral, por vezes com cegueira, e morte. Havia desaparecimento de etmoturbinados com substituição por tecido bran-cacento, finamente granular, multilobulado e friável infil-trando-se na lâmina cribiforme, no septo nasal e nas coa-nas em todos os ovinos necropsiados. Lesões similares foram encontradas em linfonodos regionais (2 casos), pulmões (3), encéfalo (2) e em linfonodos do abomaso (1). Microscopicamente havia inflamação granulomatosa da região rinocerebral, caracterizada por necrose, proliferação de tecido conjuntivo, infiltrado de neutrófilos, eosinófilos, células epitelióides e células gigantes multinucleadas freqüentemente circundando material Splendori-Hoeppli, onde havia imagens negativas de hifas. Na impregnação pela Prata-Metenamina, as hifas tinham septos e ramificações escassas e irregulares, com dilatação balonosa terminal e com forte demarcação de contornos. Iso-lou-se de tecido nasal de quatro ovinos Conidiobolus sp.

Virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus isolated from bovine mastitis in Rio de Janeiro

The study was conducted to characterize pheno-genotypically the virulence factors and resistance pattern of Staphylococcus aureus isolates from milk samples of cows with subclinical mastitis. All hemolytic isolates presented beta-hemolysin, and 38% of the non-hemolytic isolates were able to express hemolysins in the presence of a beta-hemolytic strain. The amplification of the coa-gene displayed four different size polymorphisms with about 400 bp, 600 bp, 700 bp and 900 bp. The spaA gene that encodes the IgG-binding region of protein A revealed sizes of 700 bp and 900 bp. The amplification of region X from spaA yielded a single amplicon for each isolate with the prevalent amplicon size being of 180 bp. Amplification of sae gene yielded an amplicon size of 920 bp in 71% of the isolates. Antibiotic resistance pattern revealed that 42% S. aureus were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested. Seven different antibiotic patterns were observed. Our results indicated that 47% and 25% of S. aureus strains exhibited resistance to penicillin and oxacillin respectively. All oxacillin-resistant isolates were mecA-positive.

Análise fenotípica e genotípica da virulência de Staphylococcus spp. e de sua dispersão clonal como contribuição ao estudo da mastite bovina

A mastite é uma inflamação da glândula mamária causada principalmente por bactérias, dentre as quais o gênero Staphylococcus ocupa um papel importante. Bactérias pertencentes a este gênero são caracterizadas por expressar fatores de virulência que permitem sua persistência e disseminação no hospedeiro. O presente trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar fenogenotipicamente os fatores de virulência de isolados de Staphylococcus spp. a partir de casos de mastite bovina. Foram analisadas 272 amostras de leite provenientes de oito propriedades da região Sul-Fluminense do Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Após identificação, obteve-se um total de 250 isolados de Staphylococcus spp. Estes foram submetidos às provas fenotípicas de detecção da produção de "slime" em microplaca e em ágar vermelho congo; produção de hemolisinas e sinergismo hemolítico; produção de caseinase e DNase. Posteriormente foram submetidos à técnica de PCR para detecção dos genes de produção de cápsula (cap5 e cap8), fibronectina (fnbA,e fnbB), "slime" (icaA e icaD) e hemolisinas (hla e hlb). Do total avaliado, 58% (145/250) foi identificado como Staphylococcus spp. coagulase-negativos e 42% (105/250) como Staphylococcus spp. coagulase-positivos, destes 36,2% (38/105) foram identificados como S. aureus, 11,4% (12/105) como S. intermedius e 3,8% (4/105) como pertencentes ao grupo SIG. Apenas 6,4% (16/250) dos isolados foram produtores de α-hemólise, 4,8% (12/250) de β-hemólise e, 1,6% (4/250) de α e β-hemólise. A produção de caseinase foi observada em 66,4% (166/250), e a produção de "slime" avaliada pela técnica da microplaca em 76,8% (192/250) dos isolados, respectivamente. A DNase foi detectada em ECNs (38/145) e S. aureus (14/38). Os marcadores genéticos avaliados para a produção de slime, icaA e icaD apresentaram nenhuma ou leve concordância com a produção fenotípica, respectivamente, utilizando o coeficiente Kappa. Tal dado parece indicar que outros marcadores genéticos podem estar envolvidos com a expressão desta característica. Os demais genes detectados com frequência de 4% (10/250) para cap5 e para cap8, 32,8% (82/250) para fnbA, 4,4% (11/250) para fnbB, 19,2% (48/250) para hla e 18% (45/250) para hlb. O perfil circulante nas propriedades foi o 1: isolado produtor de "slime" e caseinase. O gene spaA foi positivo em todos os S. aureus, apresentando amplicons de tamanhos variados, sendo o tamanho prevalente o de 300pb. A amplificação do gene coa apresentou nove tipos polimórficos distintos, sendo prevalente o amplicon de 600pb. O gene agr foi detectado em todos os S. aureus, com amplicon de 200pb. Foi observado que os genes de virulência estudados estavam distribuídos de modo aleatório entreos 6 distintos perfis eletroforéticos obtidos através da Eletroforese em Gel de Campo Pulsado (PFGE).

Resistência de Eleusine indica aos inibidores de ACCase

Dentre as causas da ineficácia no controle de plantas daninhas destaca-se a resistência delas aos herbicidas. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram avaliar a suspeita de resistência de Eleusine indica a inibidores de acetil-CoA carboxilase (ACCase) e investigar a ocorrência de resistência cruzada entre os inibidores de ACCase. Biótipo de Eleusine indica originado do Mato Grosso com suspeita de resistência aos herbicidas inibidores de ACCase foi avaliado em casa de vegetação na sua suscetibilidade para diversos produtos do grupo dos ariloxifenoxipropionatos e cicloexanodionas. Estudos de resposta à dose confirmaram que o biótipo era 18 vezes mais insensível ao sethoxydim do que biótipo suscetível nunca aspergido com herbicidas. Também se constatou resistência cruzada ao fenoxaprop, cyhalofop, propaquizafop e butroxydim. Não se observou resistência cruzada aos produtos fluazifop, haloxyfop, quizalofop e clethodim.

O desenvolvimento de culturas tolerantes ao herbicida diclorofenoxiacetato: revisão de literatura

O composto diclorofenoxiacetato (2,4-D) foi o primeiro herbicida orgânico, sistêmico, seletivo e de aplicação em pós-emergência desenvolvido no mundo. Juntamente com a revolução verde, ele contribuiu para elevar a produção dos cereais nas décadas posteriores a 1950. Esse produto é uma auxina sintética que pode ser utilizada como regulador do crescimento vegetal ou, ainda, como herbicida para o controle de espécies daninhas dicotiledôneas. Várias espécies infestantes dicotiledôneas que apresentam dificuldade de controle com outros herbicidas são suscetíveis ao 2,4-D. Contudo, a utilização desse herbicida fica restrita pela falta de seletividade em algumas culturas agrícolas. Nas últimas décadas, a descoberta de genes relacionados à tolerância ao 2,4-D em bactérias encontradas no solo e a sua transferência para culturas possibilitaram o desenvolvimento de linhagens tolerantes ao produto. Os objetivos desta revisão de literatura foram apresentar os genes e a atividade das enzimas responsáveis pela tolerância ao herbicida 2,4-D; ilustrar os mecanismos envolvidos na seletividade ao 2,4-D e a outros herbicidas; e equacionar algumas implicações para o manejo de plantas daninhas. O primeiro gene de tolerância ao 2,4-D descoberto foi o tfdA, encontrado no plasmídeo pJP4 da bactéria Cupriavidus necator. Este gene codifica a enzima 2,4-D/oxoglutarato dioxigenase, a qual realiza a conversão do 2,4-D em 2,4-diclorofenol e glioxilato. No final da década de 1980, foi realizada a primeira inserção do gene tfdA em plantas de Nicotiana tabacum, mediada por Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Isso conferiu tolerância de plantas de fumo ao 2,4-D. Resultados similares foram obtidos com inserções posteriores deste gene em plantas de Gossypium hirsutum, Brassica juncea e Vitis vinifera. Com a continuidade dos estudos de bactérias de solo, identificaram-se outros dois genes: o gene rdpA de Sphingobium herbicidivorans MH, que codifica a enzima ariloxialcanoato dioxigenase-1 (AAD-1); e o sdpA de Delftia acidovorans MC1, que codifica a enzima ariloxialcanoato dioxigenase-1(AAD-12). Essas duas enzimas são similares, mas têm cinética enzimática diferenciada e são capazes de degradar o 2,4-D e outros herbicidas. A enzima AAD-1 degrada o 2,4-D e, surpreendentemente, alguns herbicidas inibidores da acetil-CoA carboxilase (ACCase) do grupo dos ariloxifenoxipropionatos (FOPs). A enzima AAD-12 apresenta alta afinidade de ligação com os auxínicos 2,4-D, MCPA, triclopyr e fluroxypyr. Atualmente os genes que codificam estas enzimas estão sendo utilizados para o desenvolvimento de cultivares de soja, algodão e milho tolerantes ao 2,4-D e FOPs. Plantas de soja com o transgene sdpA se mostraram tolerantes ao 2,4-D. Plantas de milho contendo o gene rdpA também são tolerantes aos herbicidas FOPs. Trabalhos realizados com as espécies daninhas Conyza bonariensis, Conyza canadensis e Amaranthus palmeri resistentes ao herbicida glyphosate têm mostrado controle adequado com o 2,4-D. Portanto, os genes sdpA e rdpA são bons candidatos no desenvolvimento de culturas tolerantes ao 2,4-D e deverão ampliar as opções de controle de espécies daninhas de difícil manejo com outros herbicidas.

Molecular Basis for Resistance to Fluazifop-P-Butyl in Itchgrass (Rottboellia cochinchinensis) from Costa Rica

Rottboellia cochinchinensis is an annual grass weed species known as itchgrass, or "caminadora" in America´s Spanish speaking countries, and has become a major and troublesome weed in several crops. The application of fluazifop-P-butyl at recommended rates (125 g a.i. ha-1) was observed to be failing to control itchgrass in a field in San José, Upala county, Alajuela province, Costa Rica. Plants from the putative resistant R. cochinchinensis population survived fluazifop-P-butyl when treated with 250 g a.i. ha-1 (2X label rate) at the three- to four-leaf stage under greenhouse conditions. PCR amplification and sequencing of partial carboxyl transferase domain (CT) of the acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase) gene were used to determine the molecular mechanism of resistance. A single non-synonymous point mutation from TGG (susceptible plants) to TGC (putative resistant plants) that leads to a Trp-2027-Cys substitution was found. This Trp-2027-Cys mutation is known to confer resistance to all aryloxyphenoxyproprionate (APP) herbicides to which fluazifop-P-butyl belongs. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of fluazifop-P-butyl resistance and a mutation at position 2027 for a Costa Rican R. cochinchinensis population.

Retinol-induced changes in the phosphorylation levels of histones and high mobility group proteins from Sertoli cells

Chromatin proteins play a role in the organization and functions of DNA. Covalent modifications of nuclear proteins modulate their interactions with DNA sequences and are probably one of the multiple factors involved in the process of switch on/off transcriptionally active regions of DNA. Histones and high mobility group proteins (HMG) are subject to many covalent modifications that may modulate their capacity to bind to DNA. We investigated the changes induced in the phosphorylation pattern of cultured Wistar rat Sertoli cell histones and high mobility group protein subfamilies exposed to 7 µM retinol for up to 48 h. In each experiment, 6 h before the end of the retinol treatment each culture flask received 370 KBq/ml [32P]-phosphate. The histone and HMGs were isolated as previously described [Moreira et al. Medical Science Research (1994) 22: 783-784]. The total protein obtained by either method was quantified and electrophoresed as described by Spiker [Analytical Biochemistry (1980) 108: 263-265]. The gels were stained with Coomassie brilliant blue R-250 and the stained bands were cut and dissolved in 0.5 ml 30% H2O2 at 60oC for 12 h. The vials were chilled and 5.0 ml scintillation liquid was added. The radioactivity in each vial was determined with a liquid scintillation counter. Retinol treatment significantly changed the pattern of each subfamily of histone and high mobility group proteins.

Mutations in the SRY, DAX1, SF1 and WNT4 genes in Brazilian sex-reversed patients

In most mammals, male development is triggered by the transient expression of the SRY gene, which initiates a cascade of gene interactions ultimately leading to the formation of a testis from the indifferent fetal gonad. Mutation studies have identified several genes essential for early gonadal development. We report here a molecular study of the SRY, DAX1, SF1 and WNT4 genes, mainly involved in sexual determination, in Brazilian 46,XX and 46,XY sex-reversed patients. The group of 46,XX sex-reversed patients consisted of thirteen 46,XX true hermaphrodites and four 46,XX males, and was examined for the presence of the SRY gene and for the loss of function (inactivating mutations and deletions) of DAX1 and WNT4 genes. In the second group consisting of thirty-three 46,XY sex-reversed patients we investigated the presence of inactivating mutations in the SRY and SF1 genes as well as the overexpression (duplication) of the DAX1 and WNT4 genes. The SRY gene was present in two 46,XX male patients and in none of the true hermaphrodites. Only one mutation, located outside homeobox domain of the 5' region of the HMG box of SRY (S18N), was identified in a patient with 46,XY sex reversal. A novel 8-bp microdeletion of the SF1 gene was identified in a 46,XY sex-reversed patient without adrenal insufficiency. The dosage of DAX1 and WNT4 was normal in the sex-reversed patients studied. We conclude that these genes are rarely involved in the etiology of male gonadal development in sex-reversed patients, a fact suggesting the presence of other genes in the sex determination cascade.

Ginseng administration protects skeletal muscle from oxidative stress induced by acute exercise in rats

Enzymatic activity was analyzed in the soleus, gastrocnemius (red and white) and plantaris muscles of acutely exercised rats after long-term administration of Panax ginseng extract in order to evaluate the protective role of ginseng against skeletal muscle oxidation. Ginseng extract (3, 10, 100, or 500 mg/kg) was administered orally for three months to male Wistar rats weighing 200 ± 50 g before exercise and to non-exercised rats (N = 8/group). The results showed a membrane stabilizing capacity of the extract since mitochondrial function measured on the basis of citrate synthase and 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase activities was reduced, on average, by 20% (P < 0.05) after exercise but the activities remained unchanged in animals treated with a ginseng dose of 100 mg/kg. Glutathione status did not show significant changes after exercise or treatment. Lipid peroxidation, measured on the basis of malondialdehyde levels, was significantly higher in all muscles after exercise, and again was reduced by about 74% (P < 0.05) by the use of ginseng extract. The administration of ginseng extract was able to protect muscle from exercise-induced oxidative stress irrespective of fiber type.

Advanced biofuel production: Engineering metabolic pathways for butanol and propane biosynthesis.

Greenhouse gases emitted from energy production and transportation are dramatically changing the climate of Planet Earth. As a consequence, global warming is affecting the living conditions of numerous plant and animal species, including ours. Thus the development of sustainable and renewable liquid fuels is an essential global challenge in order to combat the climate change. In the past decades many technologies have been developed as alternatives to currently used petroleum fuels, such as bioethanol and biodiesel. However, even with gradually increasing production, the market penetration of these first generation biofuels is still relatively small compared to fossil fuels. Researchers have long ago realized that there is a need for advanced biofuels with improved physical and chemical properties compared to bioethanol and with biomass raw materials not competing with food production. Several target molecules have been identified as potential fuel candidates, such as alkanes, fatty acids, long carbon‐chain alcohols and isoprenoids. The current study focuses on the biosynthesis of butanol and propane as possible biofuels. The scope of this research was to investigate novel heterologous metabolic pathways and to identify bottlenecks for alcohol and alkane generation using Escherichia coli as a model host microorganism. The first theme of the work studied the pathways generating butyraldehyde, the common denominator for butanol and propane biosynthesis. Two ways of generating butyraldehyde were described, one via the bacterial fatty acid elongation machinery and the other via partial overexpression of the acetone‐butanol‐ethanol fermentation pathway found in Clostridium acetobutylicum. The second theme of the experimental work studied the reduction of butyraldehyde to butanol catalysed by various bacterial aldehyde‐reductase enzymes, whereas the final part of the work investigated the in vivo kinetics of the cyanobacterial aldehyde deformylating oxygenase (ADO) for the generation of hydrocarbons. The results showed that the novel butanol pathway, based on fatty acid biosynthesis consisting of an acyl‐ACP thioesterase and a carboxylic acid reductase, is tolerant to oxygen, thus being an efficient alternative to the previous Clostridial pathways. It was also shown that butanol can be produced from acetyl‐CoA using acetoacetyl CoA synthase (NphT7) or acetyl‐CoA acetyltransferase (AtoB) enzymes. The study also demonstrated, for the first time, that bacterial biosynthesis of propane is possible. The efficiency of the system is clearly limited by the poor kinetic properties of the ADO enzyme, and for proper function in vivo, the catalytic machinery requires a coupled electron relay system.

The novel p.E89K mutation in the SRY gene inhibits DNA binding and causes the 46,XY disorder of sex development

Male sex determination in humans is controlled by the SRY gene, which encodes a transcriptional regulator containing a conserved high mobility group box domain (HMG-box) required for DNA binding. Mutations in the SRY HMG-box affect protein function, causing sex reversal phenotypes. In the present study, we describe a 19-year-old female presenting 46,XY karyotype with hypogonadism and primary amenorrhea that led to the diagnosis of 46,XY complete gonadal dysgenesis. The novel p.E89K missense mutation in the SRY HMG-box was identified as a de novo mutation. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that p.E89K almost completely abolished SRY DNA-binding activity, suggesting that it is the cause of SRY function impairment. In addition, we report the occurrence of the p.G95R mutation in a 46,XY female with complete gonadal dysgenesis. According to the three-dimensional structure of the human SRY HMG-box, the substitution of the conserved glutamic acid residue by the basic lysine at position 89 introduces an extra positive charge adjacent to and between the positively charged residues R86 and K92, important for stabilizing the HMG-box helix 2 with DNA. Thus, we propose that an electrostatic repulsion caused by the proximity of these positive charges could destabilize the tip of helix 2, abrogating DNA interaction.

Effect of high-fat diets on body composition, lipid metabolism and insulin sensitivity, and the role of exercise on these parameters

Dietary fat composition can interfere in the development of obesity due to the specific roles of some fatty acids that have different metabolic activities, which can alter both fat oxidation and deposition rates, resulting in changes in body weight and/or composition. High-fat diets in general are associated with hyperphagia, but the type of dietary fat seems to be more important since saturated fats are linked to a positive fat balance and omental adipose tissue accumulation when compared to other types of fat, while polyunsaturated fats, omega-3 and omega-6, seem to increase energy expenditure and decrease energy intake by specific mechanisms involving hormone-sensitive lipase, activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) and others. Saturated fat intake can also impair insulin sensitivity compared to omega-3 fat, which has the opposite effect due to alterations in cell membranes. Obesity is also associated with impaired mitochondrial function. Fat excess favors the production of malonyl-CoA, which reduces GLUT4 efficiency. The tricarboxylic acid cycle and beta-oxidation are temporarily uncoupled, forming metabolite byproducts that augment reactive oxygen species production. Exercise can restore mitochondrial function and insulin sensitivity, which may be crucial for a better prognosis in treating or preventing obesity.

The role of keratin intermediate filaments in the colon epithelial cells

Keratins (K) are cytoskeletal proteins mainly expressed in the epithelium and constitute the largest subgroup of intermediate filaments (IFs). Simple epithelial keratins (SEKs) K7-K8 and K18-K20 are the major IF elements in the colon. SEK mutations are known to cause around 30 human diseases, mainly affecting liver and skin. However, so far no strong associations between K8 mutations and the development of human colitis have been found. The keratin contribution to colonic health comes from the K8 knock-out (K8-/-) mouse model, which develops an early chronic inflammation and hyperproliferation in the colon. The aim of this thesis was to investigate how keratins contribute to intestinal health and disease mainly by the experimental analysis using the K8-/- mouse colon and cell culture models. The work described here is divided into three studies. The first study revealed involvement of keratins in Notch1 signaling, which is the master regulator of cell fate in the colon. Immunoprecipitation and immunostaining, both in vitro and in vivo showed that K8 binds and co-localizes with Notch1. Interestingly, overexpression of keratins enhanced Notch1 levels and stabilized Notch intracellular domain (NICD), leading to higher activity of Notch signaling. The dramatic decrease in Notch activity in the K8-/- colon resulted in a differentiation shift towards goblet and enteroendocrine cells. The second study focused on the involvement of keratins in colitis-associated cancer (CAC). Although, the K8-/- inflamed colon did not develop colorectal cancer (CRC) spontaneously, it was dramatically more susceptible to induced CRC in two CRC models: azoxymethane (AOM) and multiple intestinal neoplasia (ApcMin/+). To understand how the loss of K8 contributes to CAC, the epithelial inflammasome signaling pathway was analyzed. The released component of active inflammasome, cleaved caspase-1 and its downstream protein, interleukin (IL)-18, were significantly increased in K8-/- and K8-/-ApcMin/+ colons. The inflammasome pathway has recently been suggested to control the levels of IL-22 binding protein (IL-22BP), which is a negative regulator of IL-22 activity. Interestingly, the activated inflammasome correlated with an upregulation of IL-22 and a complete loss of IL-22BP in the K8-null colons. The activation of IL-22 was confirmed by increased levels of downstream signaling, which is phosphorylated signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (P-STAT3), a transcription factor promoting proliferation and tissue regeneration in the colon. The objective of the third study, was to examine the role of keratins in colon energy metabolism. A proteomic analysis identified mitochondrial 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase 2 (HMGCS2) as the major ownregulated protein in the K8-/- colonocytes. HMGCS2 is the rate-limiting enzyme in ketogenesis, where energy from bacterially produced short chain fatty acids (SCFAs), mainly butyrate, is converted into ketone bodies in colonic epithelium. Lower levels and activity of HMGCS2 in the K8-/- colon resulted in a blunted ketogenesis. The studies upstream from HMGCS2, identified decreased levels of the SCFA-transporter monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1), which led to increased SCFA content in the stool suggesting impaired butyrate transport through the colonic epithelium. Taken together, the results of the herein thesis indicate that keratins are essential regulators of colon homeostasis, in particular epithelial differentiation, tumorigenesis and energy metabolism.