Hypothesis: "Rogue cell"-type chromosomal damage in lymphocytes is associated with infection with the JC human polyoma virus and has implications for oncopenesis.

The hemagglutination inhibition antibody titers against the JC and BK polyoma viruses (JCV and BKV, respectively) are significantly elevated in individuals exhibiting "rogue" cells among their cultured lymphocytes. However, the elevation is so much greater with respect to JCV that the BKV elevation could readily be explained by cross reactivity to the capsid protein of these two closely related viruses. The JCV exhibits high sequence homology with the simian papovavirus, simian virus 40 (SV40), and inoculation of human fetal brain cells with JCV produces polyploidy and chromosomal damage very similar to that produced by SV40. We suggest, by analogy with the effects of SV40, that these changes are due to the action of the viral large tumor antigen, a pluripotent DNA binding protein that acts in both transcription and replication. The implications of these findings for oncogenesis are briefly discussed.

Regulation of meiotic chromatin loop size by chromosomal position.

At meiotic prophase, chromatin loops around a proteinaceous core, with the sizes of these loops varying between species. Comparison of the morphology of sequence-related inserts at different sites in transgenic mice demonstrates that loop size also varies with chromosomal geography. Similarly, chromatin loop lengths differ dramatically for interstitially and terminally located hamster telomeric sequences. Sequences, telomeric or otherwise, located at chromosome termini, closely associate with the meiotic proteinaceous core, forming shorter loops than identical interstitial sequences. Thus, we present evidence that different chromatin packaging mechanisms exist for interstitial versus terminal chromosomal regions, which act separately from those operating at the level of the DNA sequence. Chromosomal position plays the dominant role in chromatin packaging.

Olfactory neuroblastoma is a peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumor related to Ewing sarcoma.

Olfactory neuroblastoma (ONB) is a malignant tumor of the nasal mucosa whose histogenesis is unclear. A relationship to neuroblastoma (NB), a pediatric tumor of the sympathetic nervous system, is based on morphologic similarities and the expression of similar neural antigens. However, the clinical presentation of ONB differs from that of NB, and MYCN amplification characteristic of NB is not observed. We have therefore examined the relationship of this malignancy to other classes of neural tumors. In previous studies, two ONB cell lines demonstrated cytogenetic features and patterns of protooncogene expression suggestive of a relationship to the Ewing sarcoma family of childhood peripheral primitive neuroectodermal tumors (pPNETs). The pPNETs show t(11;22)(q24;q12) or t(21;22)(q22;q12) chromosomal translocations fusing the EWS gene from 22q12 with either the FL11 gene on 11q24 or the ERG gene on 21q22. We therefore analyzed ONBs for the presence of pPNET-associated gene fusions. Both cell lines showed rearrangement of the EWS gene, and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) of each case demonstrated fusion of EWS and FL11 genomic sequences. Moreover, both lines expressed EWS/FL11 fusion transcripts with in-frame junctions between exon 7 of EWS and exon 6 of FL11 as described for pPNETs. We identified similar gene fusions in four of six primary ONB cases. None of the cases expressed tyrosine hydroxylase, a catecholamine biosynthetic enzyme widely expressed in NB. Our studies indicate that ONB is not a NB but is a member of the pPNET family.

DNA rearrangement mediated by inverted repeats.

Inverted repeats of DNA are widespread in the genomes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes and can mediate genome rearrangement. We studied rearrangement mediated by plasmid-borne inverted repeats in Escherichia coli. We show that inverted repeats can mediate an efficient and recA-independent recombination event. Surprisingly, the product of this recombination is not that of simple inversion between the inverted repeats, but almost exclusively an unusual head-to-head dimer with complex DNA rearrangement. Moreover, this recombination is dramatically reduced by increasing the distance separating the repeats. These results can be readily explained by a model involving reciprocal switching of the leading and lagging strands of DNA replication within the inverted repeats, which leads to the formation of a Holliday junction. Reciprocal strand switching during DNA replication might be a common mechanism for genome rearrangement associated with inverted duplication.

The chromosomal distribution of mouse odorant receptor genes.

Odorant receptors (ORs) on nasal olfactory sensory neurons are encoded by a large multigene family. Each member of the family is expressed in a small percentage of neurons that are confined to one of several spatial zones in the nose but are randomly distributed throughout that zone. This pattern of expression suggests that when the sensory neuron selects which OR gene to express it may be confined to a particular zonal gene set of several hundred OR genes but select from among the members of that set via a stochastic mechanism. Both locus-dependent and locus-independent models of OR gene choice have been proposed. To investigate the feasibility of these models, we determined the chromosomal locations of 21 OR genes expressed in four different spatial zones. We found that OR genes are clustered within multiple loci that are broadly distributed in the genome. These loci lie within paralogous chromosomal regions that appear to have arisen by duplications of large chromosomal domains followed by extensive gene duplication and divergence. Our studies show that OR genes expressed in the same zone map to numerous loci; moreover, a single locus can contain genes expressed in different zones. These findings raise the possibility that OR gene choice may be locus-independent or involve consecutive stochastic choices.

Influence of alkyltransferase activity and chromosomal locus on mutational hotspots in Chinese hamster ovary cells.

High-density mutational spectra have been established for exon 3 of the gene encoding adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) of the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line derivative D422 and closely related and/or modified lines by using the mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate (EMS). The total number of selectable sites (GC-->AT transitions yielding a selectable APRT- phenotype) was estimated at 31 based on our own accumulated data base of 136 sequenced exon 3 mutations and on literature reports. D422 and two other APRT hemizygous lines each yielded very similar spectra and showed two populations of mutable sites: (i) 24 "baseline" sites that followed the Poisson distribution and therefore were equally susceptible to mutation and (ii) two hotspots, one comprising a cluster at nucleotides 1293-1309 and the other at nucleotide 1365. Collectively, the latter sites were about 10-fold more frequently mutated than the others. CHO cells are mer- as they lack the repair enzyme O6-methylguanidine methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.63). In modified repair-proficient CHO cells, the distribution of mutations among all of the 31 sites was random, with only 3 of the 19 GC-->AT transitions in the above hotspots. To determine whether the distribution was locus-dependent, two independent lines carrying single copies of transfected APRT genes were generated from a derivative of D422 carrying a deletion in the endogenous APRT gene. Nucleotides 1293-1309 were again no longer preferentially mutated, but the site at nucleotide 1365 was still a hotspot. We conclude that mutational spectra in mer- cells are at least in part locus dependent and that some sequences are particularly susceptible to EMS mutagenesis and perhaps also to methyltransferase repair.

Enterococcus faecalis pheromone binding protein, PrgZ, recruits a chromosomal oligopeptide permease system to import sex pheromone cCF10 for induction of conjugation.

Conjugative transfer of the plasmid pCF10 by Enterococcus faecalis donor cells occurs in response to a peptide sex pheromone, cCF10, secreted by recipients. The plasmid-encoded cCF10 binding protein, PrgZ, is similar in sequence to binding proteins (OppAs) encoded by oligopeptide permease (opp) operons. Mutation of prgZ decreased the sensitivity of donor cells to pheromone, whereas inactivation of the chromosomal E. faecalis opp operon abolished response at physiological concentrations of pheromone. Affinity chromatography experiments demonstrated the interaction of the pheromone with several putative intracellular regulatory molecules, including an RNA molecule required for positive regulation of conjugation functions. These data suggest that processing of the pheromone signal involves recruitment of a chromosomal Opp system by PrgZ and that signaling occurs by direct interaction of internalized pheromone with intracellular effectors.

Alignment of a 1.2-Mb chromosomal region from three strains of Rhodobacter capsulatus reveals a significantly mosaic structure.

High-resolution physical maps of the genomes of three Rhodobacter capsulatus strains, derived from ordered cosmid libraries, were aligned. The 1.2-Mb segment of the SB1003 genome studied here is adjacent to a 1-Mb region analyzed previously [Fonstein, M., Nikolskaya, T. & Haselkorn, H. (1995) J. Bacteriol. 177, 2368-2372]. Probes derived from the ordered cosmid set of R. capsulatus SB1003 were used to link cosmids from the St. Louis and 2.3.1 strain libraries. Cosmids selected this way did not merge into a single contig but formed several unlinked groups. EcoRV restriction maps of the ordered cosmids were then constructed using lambda terminase and fused to derive fragments of the chromosomal map. In order to link these fragments, their ends were transcribed to produce secondary probes for hybridization to gridded cosmid libraries of the same strains. This linking reduced the number of subcontigs to three for the St. Louis strain and one for the 2.3.1 strain. Hybridization of the same probes back to the ordered cosmid set of SB1003 positioned the subcontigs on the high-resolution physical map of SB1003. The final alignment of the restriction maps shows numerous large and small translocations in this 1.2-Mb chromosomal region of the three Rhodobacter strains. In addition, the chromosomes of the three strains, whose fine-structure maps can now be compared over 2.2 Mb, are seen to contain regions of 15-80 kb in which restriction sites are highly polymorphic, interspersed among regions in which the positions of restriction sites are highly conserved.

Site-directed mutagenesis of Azotobacter vinelandii ferredoxin I: cysteine ligation of the [4Fe-4S] cluster with protein rearrangement is preferred over serine ligation.

The [4Fe-4S] cluster of Azotobacter vinelandii ferredoxin I receives three of its four ligands from a Cys-Xaa-Xaa-Cys-Xaa-Xaa-Cys sequence at positions 39-45 while the fourth ligand, Cys20, is provided by a distal portion of the sequence. Previously we reported that the site-directed mutation of Cys20 to Ala (C20A protein) resulted in the formation of a new [4Fe-4S] cluster that obtained its fourth ligand from Cys24, a free cysteine in the native structure. That ligand exchange required significant protein rearrangement. Here we report the conversion of Cys20 to Ser (C20S protein), which gives the protein the opportunity either to retain the native structure and use the Ser20 O gamma as a ligand or to rearrange and use Cys24. X-ray crystallography demonstrates that the cluster does not use the Ser20 O gamma as a ligand; rather it rearranges to use Cys24. In the C20S protein the [4Fe-4S] cluster has altered stability and redox properties relative to either C20A or the native protein.

Nodulating strains of Rhizobium loti arise through chromosomal symbiotic gene transfer in the environment.

Rhizobia were isolated from nodules off a stand of Lotus corniculatus established with a single inoculant strain, ICMP3153, 7 years earlier in an area devoid of naturalized Rhizobium loti. The isolates showed diversity in growth rate, Spe I fingerprint of genomic DNA, and hybridization pattern to genomic DNA probes. The 19% of isolates that grew at the same rate as strain ICMP3153 were the only isolates that had the same fingerprint as strain ICMP3153. Sequencing of part of the 16S rRNA gene of several diverse isolates confirmed that they were not derived from the inoculant strain. Nevertheless, all non-ICMP3153 strains gave EcoRI and Spe I hybridization patterns identical to ICMP3153 when hybridized to nodulation gene cosmids. Hybridization of digests generated by the very rare cutting enzyme Swa I revealed that the symbiotic DNA region (at least 105 kb) was chromosomally integrated in the strains. The results suggest that the diverse strains arose by transfer of chromosomal symbiotic genes from ICMP3153 to nonsymbiotic rhizobia in the environment.

kappa-Opioid receptor in humans: cDNA and genomic cloning, chromosomal assignment, functional expression, pharmacology, and expression pattern in the central nervous system.

Using the mouse delta-opioid receptor cDNA as a probe, we have isolated genomic clones encoding the human mu- and kappa-opioid receptor genes. Their organization appears similar to that of the human delta receptor gene, with exon-intron boundaries located after putative transmembrane domains 1 and 4. The kappa gene was mapped at position q11-12 in human chromosome 8. A full-length cDNA encoding the human kappa-opioid receptor has been isolated. The cloned receptor expressed in COS cells presents a typical kappa 1 pharmacological profile and is negatively coupled to adenylate cyclase. The expression of kappa-opioid receptor mRNA in human brain, as estimated by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, is consistent with the involvement of kappa-opioid receptors in pain perception, neuroendocrine physiology, affective behavior, and cognition. In situ hybridization studies performed on human fetal spinal cord demonstrate the presence of the transcript specifically in lamina II of the dorsal horn. Some divergences in structural, pharmacological, and anatomical properties are noted between the cloned human and rodent receptors.

Correction of chromosomal instability and sensitivity to diverse mutagens by a cloned cDNA of the XRCC3 DNA repair gene.

The mutagen-sensitive CHO line irs1SF was previously isolated on the basis of hypersensitivity to ionizing radiation and was found to be chromosomally unstable as well as cross-sensitive to diverse kinds of DNA-damaging agents. The analysis of somatic cell hybrids formed between irs1SF and human lymphocytes implicated a human gene (defined as XRCC3; x-ray repair cross-complementing), which partially restored mitomycin C resistance to the mutant. A functional cDNA that confers mitomycin C resistance was transferred to irs1SF cells by transforming them with an expression cDNA library and obtaining primary and secondary transformants. Functional cDNA clones were recovered from a cosmid library prepared from a secondary transformant. Transformants also showed partial correction of sensitivity to cisplatin and gamma-rays, efficient correction of chromosomal instability, and substantially improved plating efficiency and growth rate. The XRCC3 cDNA insert is approximately 2.5 kb and detects an approximately 3.0-kb mRNA on Northern blots. The cDNA was mapped by fluorescence in situ hybridization to human chromosome 14q32.3, which was consistent with the chromosome concordance data of two independent hybrid clone panels.

Chromosomal insertion of foreign (adenovirus type 12, plasmid, or bacteriophage lambda) DNA is associated with enhanced methylation of cellular DNA segments.

Insertion of foreign DNA into an established mammalian genome can extensively alter the patterns of cellular DNA methylation. Adenovirus type 12 (Ad12)-transformed hamster cells, Ad12-induced hamster tumor cells, or hamster cells carrying integrated DNA of bacteriophage lambda were used as model systems. DNA methylation levels were examined by cleaving cellular DNA with Hpa II, Msp I, or Hha I, followed by Southern blot hybridization with 32P-labeled, randomly selected cellular DNA probes. For several, but not all, cellular DNA segments investigated, extensive increases in DNA methylation were found in comparison with the methylation patterns in BHK21 or primary Syrian hamster cells. In eight different Ad12-induced hamster tumors, moderate increases in DNA methylation were seen. Increased methylation of cellular genes was also documented in two hamster cell lines with integrated Ad12 DNA without the Ad12-transformed phenotype, in one cloned BHK21 cell line with integrated plasmid DNA, and in at least three cloned BHK21 cell lines with integrated lambda DNA. By fluorescent in situ hybridization, the cellular hybridization probes were located to different hamster chromosomes. The endogenous intracisternal A particle genomes showed a striking distribution on many hamster chromosomes, frequently on their short arms. When BHK21 hamster cells were abortively infected with Ad12, increases in cellular DNA methylation were not seen. Thus, Ad12 early gene products were not directly involved in increasing cellular DNA methylation. We attribute the alterations in cellular DNA methylation, at least in part, to the insertion of foreign DNA. Can alterations in the methylation profiles of hamster cellular DNA contribute to the generation of the oncogenic phenotype?

Caracterização de rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados associados a quadros clínicos

Este estudo teve como objetivos (a) identificar mecanismos pelos quais rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados possam estar associados de maneira causal a determinados quadros clínicos e (b) contribuir para a compreensão dos mecanismos de formação desses rearranjos. Para isso, foram estudados 45 rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados (29 translocações, 10 inversões e seis rearranjos complexos), detectados em pacientes que apresentavam malformações congênitas, comprometimento do desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor ou déficit intelectual. Foram 31 rearranjos cromossômicos esporádicos, três familiais que segregavam com o quadro clínico e mais 11 rearranjos cromossômicos herdados de genitores fenotipicamente normais. Inicialmente os pontos de quebra desses rearranjos foram mapeados por hibridação in situ fluorescente (FISH). A busca por microdeleções e duplicações genômicas foi realizada por a-CGH. A investigação dos pontos de quebra prosseguiu com a aplicação da técnica de Mate-Pair Sequencing (MPS), que permite localizar as quebras em segmentos de 100 pb - 1 kb, na maioria dos casos. Para obter os segmentos de junção das quebras no nível de pares de bases, os segmentos delimitados por MPS foram sequenciados pelo método de Sanger. A análise por aCGH revelou microdeleções ou microduplicações localizadas nos cromossomos rearranjados, em 12 dos 45 pacientes investigados (27%). A análise de 27 rearranjos por MPS permitiu a caracterização dos pontos de junção das quebras. MPS expandiu o número de pontos de quebra, detectados por análise do cariótipo ou aCGH, de 114 para 156 (em resolução < 2kb, na maioria dos casos). O número de pontos de quebra/rearranjo variou de 2 a 20. Os 156 pontos de quebra resultaram em 86 variantes estruturais equilibradas e outras 32 variantes não equilibradas. Perdas e ganhos de segmentos submiscroscópicos nos cromossomos rearranjados constituíram a principal causa ou, provavelmente, contribuíram para o quadro clínico de 12 dos 45 pacientes. Em cinco desses 12 rearranjos foram detectadas por MPS a interrupção de genes já relacionados à doença, ou provável alteração de sua região reguladora, contribundo para o quadro clínico. Em quatro dos 33 rearranjos não associados a perdas ou ganhos de segmentos, a análise por MPS revelou a interrupção de genes que já foram anteriormente relacionados a doenças, explicando-se, assim, as características clínicas dos portadores; outro rearranjo pode ter levando alteração da expressão gênica de gene sensível a dosagem e ao quadro clínico. Um rearranjo cromossômico familial, identificado na análise após bandamento G como uma translocação equilibrada, t(2;22)(p14;q12), segregava com quadro de atraso do desenvolvimento neuropsicomotor e dificuldade de aprendizado associados a dismorfismos. A combinação das análises por FISH, aCGH e MPS revelou que se tratava, na verdade, de rearranjo complexo entre os cromossomos 2, 5 e 22, incluindo 10 quebras. A segregação de diferentes desequilíbrios submicroscópicos em indivíduos afetados e clinicamente normais permitiu a compreensão da variabilidade clínica observada na família. Rearranjos equilibrados detectados em indivíduos afetados, mas herdados de genitores clinicamente normais, são, em geral, considerados como não tendo relação com o quadro clínico, apesar da possibilidade de desequilíbrios cromossômicos gerados por permuta desigual na meiose do genitor portador do rearranjo. Neste trabalho, a investigação de 11 desses rearranjos por aCGH não revelou perdas ou ganhos de segmentos nos cromossomos rearranjados. No entanto, a análise por aCGH da portadora de um desses rearranjos - inv(12)mat - revelou deleção de 8,7 Mb no cromossomo 8, como causa de seu fenótipo clínico. Essa deleção estava relacionada com outro rearranjo equilibrado também presente em sua mãe, independente da inversão. Para compreender os mecanismos de formação de rearranjos citogeneticamente equilibrados, investigamos os segmentos de junção no nível de pares de base. A análise por MPS que levou, na maioria dos casos, ao mapeamento dos pontos de quebras em segmentos <1kb permitiu o sequenciamento pelo método de Sanger de 51 segmentos de junções de 17 rearranjos. A ocorrência de blunt fusions ou inserções e deleções <10 pb, e a ausência de homologia ou a presença de micro homologia de 2 pb a 4 pb de extensão indicaram o mecanismo de junção de extremidades não homólogas (non-homologous end joinging; NHEJ), na maioria das 51 junções caracterizadas. As características de três dos quatro rearranjos mais complexos, com 17-20 quebras, indicaram sua formação pelo mecanismo de chromothripsis. Este estudo mostra a importância da análise genômica de variações de número de cópias por microarray, juntamente com o mapeamento dos pontos de quebra por MPS, para determinar a estrutura de rearranjos cromossômicos citogeneticamente equilibrados e seu impacto clínico. O mapeamento dos segmentos de junção por MPS, permitindo o sequenciamento pelo método de Sanger, foi essencial para a compreensão de mecanismos de formação desses rearranjos

Generation of nitrogen functionalities on activated carbons by amidation reactions and Hofmann rearrangement: Chemical and electrochemical characterization

Nitrogen functionalization of a highly microporous activated carbon (BET surface area higher than 3000 m2/g) has been achieved using the following sequence of treatments: (i) chemical oxidation using concentrated nitric acid, (ii) amidation by acyl chloride substitution with NH4NO3 and (iii) amination by Hoffman rearrangement. This reaction pathway yielded amide and amine functional groups, and a total nitrogen content higher than 3 at.%. It is achieved producing only a small decrease (20%) of the starting microporosity, being most of it related to the initial wet oxidation of the activated carbon. Remarkably, nitrogen aromatic rings were also formed as a consequence of secondary cyclation reactions. The controlled step-by-step modification of the surface chemistry allowed to assess the influence of individual nitrogen surface groups in the electrochemical performance in 1 M H2SO4 of the carbon materials. The largest gravimetric capacitance was registered for the pristine activated carbon due to its largest apparent surface area. The nitrogen-containing activated carbons showed the highest surface capacitances. Interestingly, the amidated activated carbon showed the superior capacitance retention due to the presence of functional groups (such as lactams, imides and pyrroles) that enhance electrical conductivity through their electron-donating properties, showing a capacitance of 83 F/g at 50 A/g.