Multi-molecular markers and metals as tracers of organic matter inputs and contamination status from an Environmental Protection Area in the SW Atlantic (Laranjeiras Bay, Brazil)

The sources and concentrations of aliphatic hydrocarbons (AHs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), faecal and biogenic sterols, and trace metals at 10 sampling sites located in Laranjeiras Bay, a large Environmental Protection Area in the southern Atlantic region of Brazil, were determined to assess the sources of organic matter and the contamination status of estuarine sediments. Organic compounds were determined by GC-FID and GC-MS, and ICP-OES was used to evaluate trace metals. The total AHs concentration ranged from 0.28 to 8.19 mu g g(-1), and n-C-29 and n-C-31 alkanes were predominant, indicating significant inputs from higher terrestrial plants. Unresolved complex mixtures (UCM) were not detected at any site, suggesting that the study area was not significantly contaminated by fossil fuels. The total PAH concentration varied from 3.85 to 89.2 ng g(-1). The ratio between selected PAH isomers showed that combustion of biomass, coal, and petroleum is the rnain source of PAHs in the study area. The concentrations of the faecal sterols coprostanol and epicoprostanol were below the detection limits, suggesting that sewage was not a significant contributor to sedimentary organic matter. The concentrations of the trace metals (As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn) were low, except near sites located at the mouths of rivers that discharge into the study area and near urbanised regions (Paranagua city and the adjoining harbour). In general, the concentrations of PAHs were below the threshold effect concentrations (TEL) levels. Although the As, Cr and Ni concentrations were above the TEL levels, the study area can be considered as preserved from human activities.

BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE SAILFIN DORY Zenopsis conchifer (LOWE, 1852) CAUGHT BY DEEP-SEA TRAWLING FISHERY OFF SOUTHERN BRAZIL

Biological aspects of sailfin dory, Zenopsis conchifer, were studied from 839 individuals obtained from deep-sea commercial bottom trawling off southern Brazil at depths up to 526 m in 2002 and 2003. Samples included fish from 101 mm Lt and 15 g up to 640 mm Lt and 2,9 g. The sex-ratio was 50% at 150 mm Lt and between 300-350 mm Lt, with females outnumbering males in the remaining size classes. Reproductive activity seems to peak between July and August ( austral winter). Size at attainment of 50% maturity (Lt(50)) was 311 mm Lt in females. The mean length and maturity of the specimens increased with depth, suggesting that larger fish concentrate in deeper waters.

Composition and Seasonal Variation of Brachyura and Anomura (Crustacea, Decapoda) Associated with Brown Mussel Farms at Praia da Cocanha, Brazil

The composition and seasonal variation of brachyuran and anomuran species associated with mussel farms were evaluated at Praia da Cocanha, Sao Paulo between May 2007 and February 2008. Nine mussel ropes were sampled at random in each quarter, and 1,208 organisms were identified, comprising five families and 28 species. The most numerous species was the porcellanid Pachycheles laevidactylus (18.5%), followed by the xanthids Acantholobulus schmitti (16.6%), Hexapanopeus paulensis (11.3%), Panopeus americanus (10.2%), and Menippe nodifrons (8.4%). The exotic crab Charybdis hellerii was recorded throughout the study period. The ecological descriptors, except Pielou evenness index, varied significantly over the time. The highest abundance and diversity of the species were recorded during November and February. This pattern was reversed for Berger-Parker dominance, with the lowest values recorded in February. The development of epifauna was correlated with the different stages of the mussel farms, since the mean size of mussels and consequently the abundance of epibiotic organisms and the structural complexity on the mussel ropes increased from May (seeding) until February (harvest). Despite this, the temporal population variations in recruitment patterns of the different epibionts should not be overlooked. The results indicated that the mussel farms provided favorable conditions for the development of these crustacean groups, which could be used in environmental monitoring programs and / or be exploited for the aquarium trade.

Molecular surveillance of the Newcastle disease virus in domestic and wild birds on the North Eastern Coast and Amazon biome of Brazil

Brazil is one of the world's largest countries with a rich diversity of wildlife, including resident and migratory wild birds, which may be natural reservoirs of the Newcastle disease virus (NDV). Because Brazil is a major global exporter of chicken meat, the emergence of such a disease may have a huge negative impact not only on the economy due to trade restrictions and embargoes, but also on the quality of life of the population. Samples were collected from 1,022 asymptomatic domestic and wild birds from the Brazilian coast and the Amazon region using tracheal/cloacal swabs and tested by RT-qPCR. The results showed 7 (0.7%) birds were positive for NDV. The positive samples were then isolated in embryonated chicken eggs and their matrix protein genes were partially sequenced, revealing a low-pathogenicity NDV. This study confirms the maintenance of the velogenic-NDV free status of Brazil.

Composition and seasonal variation of brachyura and anomura (Crustacea, Decapoda) associated with brown mussel farms at Praia da Cocanha, Brazil

The composition and seasonal variation of brachyuran and anomuran species associated with mussel farms were evaluated at Praia da Cocanha, São Paulo between May 2007 and February 2008. Nine mussel ropes were sampled at random in each quarter, and 1,208 organisms were identified, comprising five families and 28 species. The most numerous species was the porcellanid Pachycheles laevidactylus (18.5%), followed by the xanthids Acantholobulus schmitti (16.6%), Hexapanopeus paulensis (11.3%), Panopeus americanus (10.2%), and Menippe nodifrons (8.4%). The exotic crab Charybdis hellerii was recorded throughout the study period. The ecological descriptors, except Pielou evenness index, varied significantly over the time. The highest abundance and diversity of the species were recorded during November and February. This pattern was reversed for Berger-Parker dominance, with the lowest values recorded in February. The development of epifauna was correlated with the different stages of the mussel farms, since the mean size of mussels and consequently the abundance of epibiotic organisms and the structural complexity on the mussel ropes increased from May (seeding) until February (harvest). Despite this, the temporal population variations in recruitment patterns of the different epibionts should not be overlooked. The results indicated that the mussel farms provided favorable conditions for the development of these crustacean groups, which could be used in environmental monitoring programs and / or be exploited for the aquarium trade.

Marginal Return of Infrastructure Investment on Bilateral Trade Performance

Investing in transport infrastructures such as roadways, airports and seaports has proven to improve a country's trade performance through reduction of transportation costs and providing access to production and market. This research investigates the diminishing return of infrastructure investment and also the rate of return of two types of infrastructure investment strategies on trade. An augmented gravity model is used with econometric analysis methods in this study. The results have shown that as roadway and airport densities increase, the marginal returns on trade decrease. Empirical evidence from the United States and China with all their trading partners from the past twenty years has also suggested existence of diminishing return of infrastructure investment on roadways and airports. Infrastructure investment strategy that focuses on increasing roadway and airport density experiences smaller diminishing return on trade. In contrast, seaport investment that focuses on port quality and efficiency generates higher return on trade. A trade benefiting infrastructure investment strategy that best utilizes financial resources must balance between quality and quantity based on a country's current level of infrastructure asset.

The Implementation of Full-time Schools: The Situation in the Federal State of Sao Paulo (Brazil)

During the past years, Brazil has been mentioned internationally as a one of the so-called BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India and China). These countries have been taking increasing space in the economical and political global scenarios in the XXI century. The facts that they possess a vast territory and stand among the highest populated countries increase their relevance within the United Nations. Besides, three of them constitute nuclear powers and two of them belong to the United Nations Security Council. Brazil has significantly participated in forums such as WTO and UNO, representing central political articulation and stability to Latin America and in the structuring and growth of MERCOSUL (Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Venezuela). Once again among the ten greatest economies of the world, the country has launched ambitious poverty-fighting programs helping more than 20 million people in the last years, such as the “Bolsa Família” (Familienstipendium) Program or and its complements). Nevertheless, Latin American countries are far from generating structural funds as the “European Social Fund” to assist specific demands of big cities as Sao Paulo and Buenos Aires. The commitments are restricted to commercial areas and bring nothing but slow and scarce advances to education or infra-structure and to the integration of systems related to these areas.

The Appellate Body Approach to the Applicability of Article XX GATT In the Light of China - Raw Materials: A Missed Opportunity?

This article attempts to analyse and investigate the implications of the approach to the applicability of Article XX GATT adopted in the recent China – Raw Materials. Using the decision on the non-availability of Article XX defences for violations of China’s WTO-plus commitments on export duties as a backdrop, it scrutinizes the more general, ‘systemic’ approach to the applicability of Article XX exceptions developed by theWTO dispute settlement bodies, and sheds light on the implications of such approach with respect to the relationship between GATT 1994 andWTO obligations arising from different instruments of theWTOAgreement, such as new members’ accession protocols. It also suggests that an exception to this general approach could be envisaged when the fundamental environmental goals protected under Article XX b) and g) are at stake.

Designing forest biodiversity experiments: general considerations illustrated by a new large experiment in subtropical China

1. Biodiversity-ecosystem functioning (BEF) experiments address ecosystem-level consequences of species loss by comparing communities of high species richness with communities from which species have been gradually eliminated. BEF experiments originally started with microcosms in the laboratory and with grassland ecosystems. A new frontier in experimental BEF research is manipulating tree diversity in forest ecosystems, compelling researchers to think big and comprehensively. 2. We present and discuss some of the major issues to be considered in the design of BEF experiments with trees and illustrate these with a new forest biodiversity experiment established in subtropical China (Xingangshan, Jiangxi Province) in 2009/2010. Using a pool of 40 tree species, extinction scenarios were simulated with tree richness levels of 1, 2, 4, 8 and 16 species on a total of 566 plots of 25.8x25.8m each. 3. The goal of this experiment is to estimate effects of tree and shrub species richness on carbon storage and soil erosion; therefore, the experiment was established on sloped terrain. The following important design choices were made: (i) establishing many small rather than fewer larger plots, (ii) using high planting density and random mixing of species rather than lower planting density and patchwise mixing of species, (iii) establishing a map of the initial ecoscape' to characterize site heterogeneity before the onset of biodiversity effects and (iv) manipulating tree species richness not only in random but also in trait-oriented extinction scenarios. 4. Data management and analysis are particularly challenging in BEF experiments with their hierarchical designs nesting individuals within-species populations within plots within-species compositions. Statistical analysis best proceeds by partitioning these random terms into fixed-term contrasts, for example, species composition into contrasts for species richness and the presence of particular functional groups, which can then be tested against the remaining random variation among compositions. 5. We conclude that forest BEF experiments provide exciting and timely research options. They especially require careful thinking to allow multiple disciplines to measure and analyse data jointly and effectively. Achieving specific research goals and synergy with previous experiments involves trade-offs between different designs and requires manifold design decisions.

The Jurisprudence of the World Trade Organization 2014

In 2014, the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) adopted seven panel reports and six Appellate Body rulings. Two of the cases relate to anti-dumping measures. Three cases, comprising five complaints, are of particular interest and these are summarized and discussed below. China – Rare Earths further refines the relationship between protocols of accession and the general provisions of WTO agreements, in particular the exceptions of Article XX GATT. Recourse to that provision is no longer excluded but depends on a careful case-by-case analysis. While China failed to comply with the conditions for export restrictions, the case reiterates the problem of insufficiently developed disciplines on export restrictions on strategic minerals and other commodities in WTO law. EC – Seals Products is a landmark case for two reasons. Firstly, it limits the application of the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) resulting henceforth in a narrow reading of technical regulations. Normative rules prescribing conditions for importation are to be dealt with under the rules of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) instead. Secondly, the ruling permits recourse to public morals in justifying import restrictions essentially on the basis of process and production methods (PPMs). Meanwhile, the more detailed implications for extraterritorial application of such rules and for the concept of PPMs remain open as these key issues were not raised by the parties to the case. Peru – Agricultural Products adds to the interpretation of the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), but most importantly, it confirms the existing segregation of WTO law and the law of free trade agreements. The case is of particular importance for Switzerland in its relations with the European Union (EU). The case raises, but does not fully answer, the question whether in a bilateral agreement, Switzerland or the EU can, as a matter of WTO law, lawfully waive their right of lodging complaints against each other under WTO law within the scope of their bilateral agreement, for example the Agreement on Agriculture where such a clause exists.

An Assessment of the Case for Monetary Union or Official Dollarization in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Uruguay and Venezuela

We use a data set covering the whole period of Argentina's currency board and most of that spanned by the Mercosur trade agreement to examine the case for either a Latin American monetary union or monetary union with the USA (through official dollarization). Our econometric evidence using VAR techniques indicates that macroeconomic shocks are still so highly asymmetric in Latin America and between Latin American countries and the USA as to make monetary union or official dollarization somewhat doubtful policies.

Trade Credits under Imperfect Enforcement: A Theory with a Test on Chinese Experience

It is widely recognized that trade credit is an important financial mechanism, particularly in developing economies and transition economies where institutions are weak. This paper documents theoretical analysis and empirical accounts on what facilitates an effective supply of trade credit based on original surveys conducted in P.R. of China. Our theory predicts that trade volume and trade credit are increasing function of cash held by the buyer and enforcement technology of the seller. Furthermore, if the state sector’s enforcement technology is high, it has positive external effect to expand the volumes of trade credit and trades in the whole economy. From the data, we found that government made active commitment in enforcement of trade credit contract and the government owned firms are main supplier and receivers of trade credit, which suggest that enforcement by government and state sector were effective against presumptions in the previous literatures.