The impact of tax morale and institutional quality on the shadow economy

This paper uses a multivariate analysis to examine how countries‘ tax morale and institutional quality affect the shadow economy. The literature strongly emphasizes the quantitative importance of these factors in understanding the level of and changes in the shadow economy. Newly available data sources offer the unique opportunity to further illuminate a topic that has received increased attention. After controlling for a variety of potential factors, we find strong support that a higher tax morale and a higher institutional quality lead to a smaller shadow economy.

Derivation of motor vehicle tailpipe particle emission factors suitable for modelling urban fleet emissions and air quality assessments

Background, aim, and scope Urban motor vehicle fleets are a major source of particulate matter pollution, especially of ultrafine particles (diameters < 0.1 µm), and exposure to particulate matter has known serious health effects. A considerable body of literature is available on vehicle particle emission factors derived using a wide range of different measurement methods for different particle sizes, conducted in different parts of the world. Therefore the choice as to which are the most suitable particle emission factors to use in transport modelling and health impact assessments presented as a very difficult task. The aim of this study was to derive a comprehensive set of tailpipe particle emission factors for different vehicle and road type combinations, covering the full size range of particles emitted, which are suitable for modelling urban fleet emissions. Materials and methods A large body of data available in the international literature on particle emission factors for motor vehicles derived from measurement studies was compiled and subjected to advanced statistical analysis, to determine the most suitable emission factors to use in modelling urban fleet emissions. Results This analysis resulted in the development of five statistical models which explained 86%, 93%, 87%, 65% and 47% of the variation in published emission factors for particle number, particle volume, PM1, PM2.5 and PM10 respectively. A sixth model for total particle mass was proposed but no significant explanatory variables were identified in the analysis. From the outputs of these statistical models, the most suitable particle emission factors were selected. This selection was based on examination of the statistical robustness of the statistical model outputs, including consideration of conservative average particle emission factors with the lowest standard errors, narrowest 95% confidence intervals and largest sample sizes, and the explanatory model variables, which were Vehicle Type (all particle metrics), Instrumentation (particle number and PM2.5), Road Type (PM10) and Size Range Measured and Speed Limit on the Road (particle volume). Discussion A multiplicity of factors need to be considered in determining emission factors that are suitable for modelling motor vehicle emissions, and this study derived a set of average emission factors suitable for quantifying motor vehicle tailpipe particle emissions in developed countries. Conclusions The comprehensive set of tailpipe particle emission factors presented in this study for different vehicle and road type combinations enable the full size range of particles generated by fleets to be quantified, including ultrafine particles (measured in terms of particle number). These emission factors have particular application for regions which may have a lack of funding to undertake measurements, or insufficient measurement data upon which to derive emission factors for their region. Recommendations and perspectives In urban areas motor vehicles continue to be a major source of particulate matter pollution and of ultrafine particles. It is critical that in order to manage this major pollution source methods are available to quantify the full size range of particles emitted for traffic modelling and health impact assessments.

Multi-criteria ranking and receptor modelling of airborne fine particles at three sites in the Pearl River Delta region of China

The multi-criteria decision making methods, Preference METHods for Enrichment Evaluation (PROMETHEE) and Graphical Analysis for Interactive Assistance (GAIA), and the two-way Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) receptor model were applied to airborne fine particle compositional data collected at three sites in Hong Kong during two monitoring campaigns held from November 2000 to October 2001 and November 2004 to October 2005. PROMETHEE/GAIA indicated that the three sites were worse during the later monitoring campaign, and that the order of the air quality at the sites during each campaign was: rural site > urban site > roadside site. The PMF analysis on the other hand, identified 6 common sources at all of the sites (diesel vehicle, fresh sea salt, secondary sulphate, soil, aged sea salt and oil combustion) which accounted for approximately 68.8 ± 8.7% of the fine particle mass at the sites. In addition, road dust, gasoline vehicle, biomass burning, secondary nitrate, and metal processing were identified at some of the sites. Secondary sulphate was found to be the highest contributor to the fine particle mass at the rural and urban sites with vehicle emission as a high contributor to the roadside site. The PMF results are broadly similar to those obtained in a previous analysis by PCA/APCS. However, the PMF analysis resolved more factors at each site than the PCA/APCS. In addition, the study demonstrated that combined results from multi-criteria decision making analysis and receptor modelling can provide more detailed information that can be used to formulate the scientific basis for mitigating air pollution in the region.

Increased Langerhan cell density and corneal nerve damage in diabetic patients : role of immune mechanisms in human diabetic neuropathy

Aim/hypothesis Immune mechanisms have been proposed to play a role in the development of diabetic neuropathy. We employed in vivo corneal confocal microscopy (CCM) to quantify the presence and density of Langerhans cells (LCs) in relation to the extent of corneal nerve damage in Bowman's layer of the cornea in diabetic patients. Methods 128 diabetic patients aged 58±1 yrs with a differing severity of neuropathy based on Neuropathy Deficit Score (NDS—4.7±0.28) and 26 control subjects aged 53±3 yrs were examined. Subjects underwent a full neurological evaluation, evaluation of corneal sensation with non-contact corneal aesthesiometry (NCCA) and corneal nerve morphology using corneal confocal microscopy (CCM). Results The proportion of individuals with LCs was significantly increased in diabetic patients (73.8%) compared to control subjects (46.1%), P=0.001. Furthermore, LC density (no/mm2) was significantly increased in diabetic patients (17.73±1.45) compared to control subjects (6.94±1.58), P=0.001 and there was a significant correlation with age (r=0.162, P=0.047) and severity of neuropathy (r=−0.202, P=0.02). There was a progressive decrease in corneal sensation with increasing severity of neuropathy assessed using NDS in the diabetic patients (r=0.414, P=0.000). Corneal nerve fibre density (P<0.001), branch density (P<0.001) and length (P<0.001) were significantly decreased whilst tortuosity (P<0.01) was increased in diabetic patients with increasing severity of diabetic neuropathy. Conclusion Utilising in vivo corneal confocal microscopy we have demonstrated increased LCs in diabetic patients particularly in the earlier phases of corneal nerve damage suggestive of an immune mediated contribution to corneal nerve damage in diabetes.

Conceptualising convenience : transportation practices and perceptions of inner-urban high density residents in Brisbane, Australia

High-density living in inner-urban areas has been promoted to encourage the use of more sustainable modes of travel to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, previous research presents mixed results on the relationship between living in proximity to transport systems and reduced car-dependency. This research examines inner-city residents’ transportation practices and perceptions, via 24 qualitative interviews with residents from high-density dwellings in inner-city Brisbane, Australia. Whilst participants consider public transport accessible and convenient, car use continues to be relied on for many journeys. Transportation choices are justified through complex definitions of convenience containing both utilitarian and psycho-social elements,with three key themes identified: time-efficiency, single versus multi-modal trips, and distance to and purpose of journey, as well as attitudinal, affective and symbolic elements related to transport mode use. Understanding conceptions of transport convenience held by different segments of the transport users market,alongside other factors strongly implicated in travel mode choice, can ensure targeted improvements in sustainable transport service levels and infrastructure as well as information service provision and behavioural change campaigns.

Infrared and infrared emission spectroscopy of nesquehonite Mg(OH)(HCO3)•2H2O : implications for the formula of nesquehonite

The mineral nesquehonite Mg(OH)(HCO3)•2H2O has been analysed by a combination of infrared (IR) and infrared emission spectroscopy (IES). Both techniques show OH vibrations, both stretching and deformation modes. IES proves the OH units are stable up to 450°C. The strong IR band at 934 cm-1 is evidence for MgOH deformation modes supporting the concept of HCO3- units in the molecular structure. Infrared bands at 1027, 1052 and 1098 cm-1 are attributed to the symmetric stretching modes of HCO3- and CO32- units. Infrared bands at 1419, 1439, 1511, and 1528 cm-1 are assigned to the antisymmetric stretching modes of CO32- and HCO3- units. IES supported by thermoanalytical results defines the thermal stability of nesquehonite IES defines the changes in the molecular structure of nesquehonite with temperature. The results of IR and IES supports the concept that the formula of nesquehonite is better defined as Mg(OH)(HCO3)•2H2O.

HapMap tag-SNP analysis confirms a role for COMT in schizophrenia risk and reveals a novel association

Catechol-O-methyl transferase (COMT) encodes an enzyme involved in the metabolism of dopamine and maps to a commonly deleted region that increases schizophrenia risk. A non-synonymous polymorphism (rs4680) in COMT has been previously found to be associated with schizophrenia and results in altered activity levels of COMT. Using a haplotype block-based gene-tagging approach we conducted an association study of seven COMT single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 160 patients with a DSM-IV diagnosis of schizophrenia and 250 controls in an Australian population. Two polymorphisms including rs4680 and rs165774 were found to be significantly associated with schizophrenia. The rs4680 results in a Val/Met substitution but the strongest association was shown by the novel SNP, rs165774, which may still be functional even though it is located in intron five. Individuals with schizophrenia were more than twice as likely to carry the GG genotype compared to the AA genotype for both the rs165774 and rs4680 SNPs. This association was slightly improved when males were analysed separately possibly indicating a degree of sexual dimorphism. Our results confirm that COMT is a good candidate for schizophrenia risk, by replicating the association with rs4680 and identifying a novel SNP association.

Design and implementation of the Exercise for Health trial – a pragmatic exercise intervention for women with breast cancer

Background Exercise for Health was a pragmatic, randomised, controlled trial comparing the effect of an eight-month exercise intervention on function, treatment-related side effects and quality of life following breast cancer, compared with usual care. The intervention commenced six weeks post-surgery, and two modes of delivering the same intervention was compared with usual care. The purpose of this paper is to describe the study design, along with outcomes related to recruitment, retention and representativeness, and intervention participation. Methods: Women newly diagnosed with breast cancer and residing in a major metropolitan city of Queensland, Australia, were eligible to participate. Consenting women were randomised to a face-to-face-delivered exercise group (FtF, n=67), telephone-delivered exercise group (Tel, n=67) or usual care group (UC, n=60) and were assessed pre-intervention (5-weeks post-surgery), mid-intervention (6 months post-surgery) and 10 weeks post-intervention (12 months post-surgery). Each intervention arm entailed 16 sessions with an Exercise Physiologist. Results: Of 318 potentially eligible women, 63% (n=200) agreed to participate, with a 12-month retention rate of 93%. Participants were similar to the Queensland breast cancer population with respect to disease characteristics, and the randomisation procedure was mostly successful at attaining group balance, with the few minor imbalances observed unlikely to influence intervention effects given balance in other related characteristics. Median participation was 14 (min, max: 0, 16) and 13 (min, max: 3, 16) intervention sessions for the FtF and Tel, respectively, with 68% of those in Tel and 82% in FtF participating in at least 75% of sessions. Discussion: Participation in both intervention arms during and following treatment for breast cancer was feasible and acceptable to women. Future work, designed to inform translation into practice, will evaluate the quality of life, clinical, psychosocial and behavioural outcomes associated with each mode of delivery.

Understanding the factors influencing safe and unsafe motorcycle rider intentions

The increasing popularity of motorcycles in Australia is a significant concern as motorcycle riders represent 15% of all road fatalities and an even greater proportion of serious injuries. This study assessed the psychosocial factors influencing motorcycle riders’ intentions to perform both safe and risky riding behaviours. Using an extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB), motorcycle riders (n = 229) from Queensland, Australia were surveyed to assess their riding attitudes, subjective norm (general and specific), perceived behavioural control (PBC), group norm, self-identity, sensation seeking, and aggression, as well as their intentions, in relation to three safe (e.g., handle my motorcycle skilfully) and three risky (e.g., bend road rules to get through traffic) riding behaviours. Although there was variability in the predictors of intention across the behaviours, results revealed that safer rider intentions were most consistently predicted by PBC, while riskier intentions were predicted by attitudes and sensation seeking. The TPB was able to explain a greater proportion of the variance for intentions to perform risky behaviours. Overall, this study has provided insight into the complexity of factors contributing to rider intentions and suggests that different practical strategies need to be adopted to facilitate safer and reduce risky rider decisions.

Nascent entrepreneurship and the developing individual : early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence and venture creation success during the career

What predicts a person's venture creation success over the course of the career, such as making progress in the venture creation process and multiple successful venture creations? Applying a life span approach of human development, this study examined the effect of early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence, which was gathered retrospectively by means of the Life History Calendar method. Human and social capitals during the founding process were investigated as mediators between adolescent competence and performance. Findings were derived from regression analyses on the basis of prospective and retrospective data from two independent samples (N = 88 nascent founders; N = 148 founders). We found that early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence had a positive effect on making progress in the venture creation process. Nascent founders' current human and social capital also had a direct effect, but it did not mediate the effect of early competences. Finally, the data revealed that early entrepreneurial competence in adolescence positively predicted habitual entrepreneurship (multiple successful venture creations) exhibited over a longer period of the individual career (specifically, 18 years). In line with the results from prospective longitudinal studies on early precursors of entrepreneurship, our findings underscore the long neglected importance of adolescent development in the explanation of entrepreneurial performance during the subsequent working life.

Assessing the relationship between global warming and mortality : lag effects of temperature fluctuations by age and mortality categories

Although interests in assessing the relationship between temperature and mortality have arisen due to climate change, relatively few data are available on lag structure of temperature-mortality relationship, particularly in the Southern Hemisphere. This study identified the lag effects of mean temperature on mortality among age groups and death categories using polynomial distributed lag models in Brisbane, Australia, a subtropical city, 1996-2004. For a 1 °C increase above the threshold, the highest percent increase in mortality on the current day occurred among people over 85 years (7.2% (95% CI: 4.3%, 10.2%)). The effect estimates among cardiovascular deaths were higher than those among all-cause mortality. For a 1 °C decrease below the threshold, the percent increases in mortality at 21 lag days were 3.9% (95% CI: 1.9%, 6.0%) and 3.4% (95% CI: 0.9%, 6.0%) for people aged over 85 years and with cardiovascular diseases, respectively. These findings may have implications for developing intervention strategies to reduce and prevent temperature-related mortality.

Ghrelin axis genes, peptides and receptors : recent findings and future challenges

The ghrelin axis consists of the gene products of the ghrelin gene (GHRL), and their receptors, including the classical ghrelin receptor GHSR. While it is well-known that the ghrelin gene encodes the 28 amino acid ghrelin peptide hormone, it is now also clear that the locus encodes a range of other bioactive molecules, including novel peptides and non-coding RNAs. For many of these molecules, the physiological functions and cognate receptor(s) remain to be determined. Emerging research techniques, including proteogenomics, are likely to reveal further ghrelin axis-derived molecules. Studies of the role of ghrelin axis genes, peptides and receptors, therefore, promises to be a fruitful area of basic and clinical research in years to come.

Ghrelin and cancer

Ghrelin is a peptide hormone that was originally isolated from the stomach as the endogenous ligand for the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR). Ghrelin has many functions, including the regulation of appetite and gut motility, growth hormone release from the anterior pituitary and roles in the cardiovascular and immune systems. Ghrelin and its receptor are expressed in a number of cancers and cancer cell lines and may play a role in processes associated with cancer progression, including cell proliferation, apoptosis, and cell invasion and migration.

Incidence, severity and correlates of bicycling injuries in a sample of cyclists in Queensland, Australia

Bicycle injuries, particularly those resulting from single bicycle crashes, are underreported in both police and hospital records. Data on cyclist characteristics and crash circumstances are also often lacking. As a result, the ability to develop comprehensive injury prevention policies is hampered. The aim of this study was to examine the incidence, severity, cyclist characteristics, and crash circumstances associated with cycling injuries in a sample of cyclists in Queensland, Australia. A cross-sectional study of Queensland cyclists was conducted in 2009. Respondents (n=2056) completed an online survey about their cycling experiences, including cycling injuries. Logistic regression modelling was used to examine the associations between demographic and cycling behaviour variables with experiencing cycling injuries in the past year, and, separately, with serious cycling injuries requiring a trip to a hospital. Twenty-seven percent of respondents (n=545) reported injuries, and 6% (n=114) reported serious injuries. In multivariable modelling, reporting an injury was more likely for respondents who had cycled <5 years, compared to ≥10 years (p<0.005); cycled for competition (p=0.01); or experienced harassment from motor vehicle occupants (p<0.001). There were no gender differences in injury incidence, and respondents who cycled for transport did not have an increased risk of injury. Reporting a serious injury was more likely for those whose injury involved other road users (p<0.03). Along with environmental and behavioural approaches for reducing collisions and near-collisions with motor vehicles, interventions that improve the design and maintenance of cycling infrastructure, increase cyclists’ skills, and encourage safe cycling behaviours and bicycle maintenance will also be important for reducing the overall incidence of cycling injuries.

Surface modification of alumina nanofibres for the selective adsorption of alachlor and imazaquin herbicides

The effective removal of pollutants using a thermally and chemically stable substrate that has controllable absorption properties is a goal of water treatment. In this study, the surfaces of thin alumina (γ-Al2O3) nanofibres were modified by the grafting either of two organosilane agents, 3-chloro-propyl-triethoxysilane (CPTES) and octyl-triethoxysilane (OTES). These modified materials were then trialed as absorbents for the removal of two herbicides, alachlor and imazaquin from water. The formation of organic groups during the functionalisation process established super hydrophobic sites on the surfaces of the nanofibres. This super hydrophobic group is a kind of protruding adsorption site which facilitates the intimate contact with the pollutants. OTES grafted substrate were shown to be more selective for alachlor while imazaquin selectivity is shown by the CPTES grafted substrate. Kinetics studies revealed that imazaquin was rapidly adsorbed on CPTES-modified surfaces. However, the adsorption of alachlor by OTES grafted surface was achieved more slowly.