Organic potatoes for processing

Drei Feldversuche auf zwei Standorten (DFH: 51°4, 9°4’, BEL: 52°2’, 8°08’) wurden in den Jahren 2002 bis 2004 durchgeführt, um den Einfluss der Vorfrucht, des Vorkeimens, der N- und K-Düngung und der Sorte auf Nährstoffverfügbarkeit, Gesamt- und sortierte Knollenerträge sowie die Qualität von Kartoffeln und deren Eignung für die industrielle Verarbeitung zu Pommes frites und Chips zu untersuchen. Bestimmt wurden die N- und K-Verfügbarkeit im Boden, die N- und K-Aufnahme von Kraut und Knollen, gesamte Frisch- und Trockenmasseerträge, sortierte Frischmasseerträge für die Verarbeitung, sowie die Gehalte der Knollen an Trockensubstanz und reduzierenden Zuckern. In einer sensorischen Prüfung wurden Qualitätsparameter von Pommes frites (Aussehen/Farbe, Textur und Geschmack/Geruch) bewertet, die gewichtet in einen Qualitätsindex eingingen. Die Qualität der Chips wurde maschinell durch den L-Wert (Helligkeit) des Produktes quantifiziert. Der Gehalt des Bodens an mineralisiertem Nitrat-Stickstoff hing von der Vorfrucht und dem Jahr ab. Nach Erbsen wurden zum Auflaufen der Kartoffeln in den Versuchsjahren 2003 und 2004 (187 und 132 kg NO3-N ha-1) die höchsten NO3-N-Werte in 0-60 cm Boden gemessen verglichen mit Kleegras (169 bzw. 108 kg NO3-N ha-1 oder Getreide (112 kg bzw. 97 kg NO3-N ha-1), obgleich die Differenz nicht in allen Fällen signifikant war. Entsprechend wurden nach Erbsen die höchsten Knollen-Frischmasseerträge (414 und 308 dt ha-1) geerntet. Dasselbe galt für die Trockenmasserträge, was belegt, dass der Trockensubstanzgehalt der Knollen bei verbesserter N-Versorgung nicht im selben Maße sinkt, wie der Frischmasseertrag steigt. Das Vorkeimen der Pflanzknollen führte zu einer rascheren phänologischen Entwicklung im Jugendstadium der Pflanze, beschleunigter Trockenmassebildung des Krautes und einer früheren Einlagerung von Assimilaten vom Kraut in die Knollen. Obwohl die positive Wirkung des Vorkeimens auf den Gesamtertrag bis Ende Juli (+ 26 in 2003 bzw. 34 dt ha-1 in 2004) im Jahr ohne Krautfäuleepidemie von den nicht vorgekeimten Varianten bis zur Endernte im September kompensiert wurde, konnte in diesem Jahr durch Vorkeimen dennoch ein erhöhter Ertragsanteil (+ 12%) der besonders nachgefragten Übergrößen (>50 mm für Pommes frites) erzielt werden. Die durchschnittliche Knollenmasse reagierte positiv auf Vorkeimen (+ 5,4 g), Sortenwahl (Sorte Agria) und ein erhöhtes N-Angebot (Leguminosenvorfrucht). Generell wurde deutlich, dass die Knollengesamterträge unter den Bedingungen des Ökologischen Landbaus (geringe bis mittlere Nährstoffversorgung, verkürzte Vegetationsdauer) sehr stark vom Anbaujahr abhängen. Die Ergebnisse belegen jedoch, dass organisch-mineralische N-K-Düngung den sortierten Ertrag an Knollen für die Verarbeitung signifikant erhöht: Höchste Gesamt- und sortierte Knollenfrischmasseerträge wurden nach kombinierter N (Horngrieß) und mineralischer K- (Kaliumsulfat) Gabe erzielt (348 dt ha-1 im Durchschnitt von 2002-2004). Im Gegensatz dazu kann eine Wirkung von Stallmist auf den Ertrag im Jahr der Ausbringung nicht unbedingt erwartet werden. Steigende Erträge nach Stallmistdüngung wurden lediglich in einem von drei Versuchsjahren (+58 dt ha-1) festgestellt und ließen sich eher auf eine K- als eine N-Wirkung zurückführen. Die Ergebnisse belegen, dass die Sortenwahl eine entscheidende Rolle spielt, wenn die Kartoffeln für die industrielle Verarbeitung zu den oben genannten Produkten angebaut werden. Insgesamt kann festgestellt werden, dass Kartoffelknollen aus ökologischen Anbauverfahren ausreichend hohe Trockensubstanzgehalte aufweisen, um für die Verarbeitung zu Pommes frites (>19%) geeignet zu sein und ohne dass dadurch die Konsistenz des Endproduktes gefährdet würde. Der Trockensubstanzgehalt der Referenzsorte für Chips, „Marlen“, unterschritt das in der Literatur geforderte Minimum für Chips von 23% lediglich, wenn die kombinierte Horngrieß-Kaliumsulfatdüngung zur Anwendung kam. Die Trockensubstanzgehalte der Knollen konnten durch Vorkeimen signifikant gesteigert werden und der Effekt war besonders groß (+1.2% absolut) in dem Jahr mit frühem Auftreten der Krautfäule (Phytophthora infestans), d.h. verkürzter Vegetationszeit. Die Knollen-Trockensubstanzgehalte waren in zwei von drei Experimenten nach Lagerung höher (+0.4 und 0.5% absolut) als noch zur Ernte. Sorten der sehr frühen und frühen Reifegruppe wiesen den größten relativen Anstieg der Gehalte an reduzierenden Zuckern (Glukose und Fruktose) während der Lagerung auf. Den mittelfrühen Sorten „Agria“ und „Marena“ hingegen kann aufgrund des von ihnen erreichten höchsten Qualitätsstandards (Pommes frites) zur Ernte eine sehr gute Eignung für die Bedingungen des Ökologischen Landbaus unterstellt werden. Die durchgehend beste Chipseignung wies die mittelfrühe Referenzsorte „Marlen“ auf. Insgesamt konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass durch gezielte Sortenwahl der Trockensubstanzgehalt und die Konzentration reduzierender Zucker, sowie die Qualität der Endprodukte (Pommes frites und Chips) gezielt beeinflusst werden kann. Im Gegensatz dazu haben acker- und pflanzenbauliche Maßnahmen wie Düngung, Wahl der Vorfrucht und Vorkeimen der Pflanzknollen einen eher geringen Einfluss. Dementsprechend sollte der Landwirt versuchen, durch die Wahl der Sorte den hohen Anforderungen der Industrie an die Rohware gerecht zu werden.

Learning achievements of farmers during the transition to market-oriented organic agriculture in rural Uganda

Organic agriculture requires farmers with the ability to develop profitable agro-enterprises on their own. By drawing on four years of experiences with the Enabling Rural Innovation approach in Uganda, we outline how smallholder farmers transition to organic agriculture and, at the same time, increase their entrepreneurial skills and competences through learning. In order to document this learning we operationalised the Kirkpatrick learning evaluation model, which subsequently informed the collection of qualitative data in two study sites. Our analysis suggests that the Enabling Rural Innovation approach helps farmers to develop essential capabilities for identifying organic markets and new organic commodities, for testing these organic commodities under varying organic farm management scenarios, and for negotiating contracts with organic traders. We also observed several obstacles that confront farmers’ transition to organic agriculture when using the Enabling Rural Innovation approach. These include the long duration of agronomic experimentation and seed multiplication, expensive organic certification procedures and the absence of adequate mechanism for farmers to access crop finance services. Despite prevailing obstacles we conclude that the Enabling Rural Innovation approach provides a starting point for farmers to develop entrepreneurial competences and profitable agro-enterprises on their own.

Nutrient cycling and nutrient use efficiency in urban and peri-urban agriculture of Kabul, Afghanistan

Like elsewhere also in Kabul, Afghanistan urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) has often been accused of being resource inefficient and unsustainable causing negatives externalities to community health and to the surroundings. These arise from the inappropriate management and use of agricultural inputs, including often pesticides and inter-city wastes containing heavy metal residues and pathogens. To address these concerns, parallel studies with the aims of quantification of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) horizontal and vertical fluxes; the assessment of heavy metal and pathogen contaminations of UPA produce, and an economic analysis of cereal, vegetable and grape production systems conducted for two years in UPA of Kabul from April 2008 to October 2009. The results of the studies from these three UPA diverse production systems can be abridged as follows: Biennial net balances in vegetable production systems were positive for N (80 kg ha-1 ), P (75 kg ha-1) and C (3,927 kg ha-1), negative for K (-205 kg ha-1), whereas in cereal production systems biennial horizontal balances were positive for P (20 kg ha-1 ) and C (4,900 kg ha-1) negative for N (-155 kg ha-1) and K (-355 kg ha-1) and in vineyards corresponding values were highly positive for N (295 kg ha-1), P (235 kg ha-1), C (3,362 kg ha-1) and slightly positive for K (5 kg ha-1). Regardless of N and C gaseous emissions, yearly leaching losses of N and P in selected vegetable gardens varied from 70 - 205 kg N ha-1 and 5 - 10 kg P ha-1. Manure and irrigation water contributed on average 12 - 79% to total Inputs of N, P, K and C, 10 - 53% to total inputs of C in the gardens and fields. The elevated levels of heavy metal and pathogen loads on fresh UPA vegetables reflected contamination from increasing traffic in the city, deposits of the past decades of war, lacking collection and treatment of raw inter-city wastes which call for solutions to protect consumer and producer health and increase reliability of UPA productions. A cost-revenue analysis of all inputs and outputs of cereal, vegetable and grapes production systems over two years showed substantial differences in net UPA household income. To confirm these results, more detailed studies are needed, but tailoring and managing the optimal application of inputs to crop needs will significantly enhance farmer’s better revenues as will as environmental and produce quality.

Socio-economic characterization of integrated cropping systems in urban and peri-urban agriculture of Faisalabad, Pakistan

Faisalabad city is surrounded by agricultural lands, where farmers are growing vegetables, grain crops, and fodder for auto-consumption and local marketing. To study the socioeconomic impact and resource use in these urban and peri-urban agricultural production (UPA) systems, a baseline survey was conducted during 2009–2010. A total of 140 households were selected using a stratified sampling method and interviewed with a structured questionnaire. The results revealed that 96 % of the households rely on agriculture as their main occupation. Thirty percent of the households were owners of the land and the rest cultivated either rented or sharecropped land. Most of the families (70 %) were headed by a member with primary education, and only 10 % of the household head had a secondary school certificate. Irrigationwater was obtained from waste water (37 %), canals (27 %), and mixed alternative sources (36 %). A total of 35 species were cultivated in the UPA systems of which were 65% vegetables, 15% grain and fodder crops, and 5% medicinal plants. Fifty-nine percent of the households cultivated wheat, mostly for auto-consumption. The 51 % of the respondents grew cauliflower (Brassica oleracea L.) and gourds (Cucurbitaceae) in the winter and summer seasons, respectively. Group marketing was uncommon and most of the farmers sold their produce at the farm gate (45 %) and on local markets (43 %). Seeds and fertilizers were available from commission agents and dealers on a credit basis with the obligation to pay by harvested produce. A major problem reported by the UPA farmers of Faisalabad was the scarcity of high quality irrigation water, especially during the hot dry summer months, in addition to lacking adequate quantities of mineral fertilizers and other inputs during sowing time. Half of the respondents estimated their daily income to be less than 1.25 US$ and spent almost half of it on food. Monthly average household income and expenses were 334 and 237 US$, respectively.

Agricultural Production and Yield Estimation: Two distinctive aspects of Brazilian Agriculture and a perspective on world food problems

Brazil has been increasing its importance in agricultural markets. The reasons are well known to be the relative abundance of land, the increasing technology used in crops, and the development of the agribusiness sector which allow for a fast response to price stimuli. The elasticity of acreage response to increases in expected return is estimated for Soybeans in a dynamic (long term) error correction model. Regarding yield patterns, a large variation in the yearly rates of growth in yield is observed, climate being probably the main source of this variation which result in ‘good’ and ‘bad’ years. In South America, special attention should be given to the El Niño and La Niña phenomena, both said to have important effects on rainfalls patterns and consequently in yield. The influence on El Niño and La Niña in historical data is examined and some ways of estimating the impact of climate on yield of Soybean and Corn markets are proposed. Possible implications of climate change may apply.

From Market- to Development Orientation - The Trade Aspect of Food Security and Agriculture

Trade rules are suggested to be one of the reasons for the hunger in the world and environmental damage. As current trade rules encourage market orientation and therefore specialization and industrialization of agriculture, which has as side effects rural hunger and environmental damage, there is room for improvement in the international trade regime. One main finding of Nexus Foundations' work in Geneva is a possible new orientation for agricultural and food markets – an orientation on development, rather than purely on markets. This development orientation consists of several elements from development of soil fertility to local markets and consumer relatedness. Since the Bali Ministerial in 2013, the WTO has set up a four year work programme on the issue of food security related to food reserves. This opens the chance to discuss broader food security issues in the realm of trade negotiations.

Effects of activated charcoal and quebracho tannins on the turnover of goat manure in irrigated organic agriculture of the subtropics

Agriculture in semi-arid and arid regions is constantly gaining importance for the security of the nutrition of humankind because of the rapid population growth. At the same time, especially these regions are more and more endangered by soil degradation, limited resources and extreme climatic conditions. One way to retain soil fertility under these conditions in the long run is to increase the soil organic matter. Thus, a two-year field experiment was conducted to test the efficiency of activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract as stabilizers of soil organic matter on a sandy soil low in nutrients in Northern Oman. Both activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract were either fed to goats and after defecation applied to the soil or directly applied to the soil in combination with dried goat manure. Regardless of the application method, both additives reduced decomposition of soil-applied organic matter and thus stabilized and increased soil organic carbon. The nutrient release from goat manure was altered by the application of activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract as well, however, nutrient release was not always slowed down. While activated charcoal fed to goats, was more effective in stabilising soil organic matter and in reducing nutrient release than mixing it, for quebracho tannin extract the opposite was the case. Moreover, the efficiency of the additives was influenced by the cultivated crop (sweet corn and radish), leading to unexplained interactions. The reduced nutrient release caused by the stabilization of the organic matter might be the reason for the reduced yields for sweet corn caused by the application of manure amended with activated charcoal and quebracho tannin extract. Radish, on the other hand, was only inhibited by the presence of quebracho tannin extract but not by activated charcoal. This might be caused by a possible allelopathic effect of tannins on crops. To understand the mechanisms behind the changes in manure, in the soil, in the mineralisation and the plant development and to resolve detrimental effects, further research as recommended in this dissertation is necessary. Particularly in developing countries poor in resources and capital, feeding charcoal or tannins to animals and using their faeces as manure may be promising to increase soil fertility, sequester carbon and reduce nutrient losses, when yield reductions can be resolved.

Integrating top down policies and bottom up practices in Urban and Periurban Agriculture: an Italian dilemma

The paper deals with some relevant and contradictory aspects of urban and peri-urban agriculture in Italy: the traditional exclusion of agricultural areas from the goals of territorial planning; the separation between top-down policies and bottom-up practices; the lack of agricultural policies at local scale. In the first part the paper summarises the weak relation between urban planning and agriculture, showing how in Italy this gap has been only partially overcome by new laws and plans. Moreover the paper focuses on how, due to the lack of suitable solutions coming from regional and local planning, a large number of vibrant initiatives were started by local stakeholders. In order to show the limitations and the potentialities of these various approaches, three peculiar experiences based on Milan, Turin and Pisa are presented. They give a cross-section of the variegated Italian situation, demonstrating that a major challenge in Italian context affects the fields of governance and inclusiveness.

Finding Spaces for Urban Food Production – Matching Spatial and Stakeholder Analysis with Urban Agriculture Approaches in the Urban Renewal Area of Dortmund-Hörde, Germany

Using the case of an economically declined neighbourhood in the post-industrial German Ruhr Area (sometimes characterized as Germany’s “Rust Belt”), we analyse, describe and conclude how urban agriculture can be used as a catalyst to stimulate and support urban renewal and regeneration, especially from a socio-cultural perspective. Using the methodological framework of participatory action research, and linking bottom-up and top-down planning approaches, a project path was developed to include the population affected and foster individual responsibility for their district, as well as to strengthen inhabitants and stakeholder groups in a permanent collective stewardship for the individual forms of urban agriculture developed and implemented. On a more abstract level, the research carried out can be characterized as a form of action research with an intended transgression of the boundaries between research, planning, design, and implementation. We conclude that by synchronously combining those four domains with intense feedback loops, synergies for the academic knowledge on the potential performance of urban agriculture in terms of sustainable development, as well as the benefits for the case-study area and the interests of individual urban gardeners can be achieved.

From Subsistence Agriculture to Commercial Enterprise: Community management of green technologies for resilient food production

The aim of this paper is to emphasize the capacity and resilience of rural communities in regard to sustainable food security by adopting innovative approaches to irrigation. The shift from subsistence to commercial agriculture is promoted as a means to sustainable development. An analysis of the efficacy of irrigation schemes in Zimbabwe suggests that, in terms of providing sustainable agricultural production, they have neither been cost-effective nor have they provided long-term food security to their beneficiaries. This is certainly true of Shashe Scheme and most others in Beitbridge District. The Shashe Irrigation Scheme project represents a bold attempt at developing a fresh approach to the management of communal land irrigation schemes through a Private Public Community Partnership. The model illustrated represents a paradigm shift from subsistence agriculture to a system based on new technologies, market linkages and community ownership that build resilience and lead to sustainable food security and economic prosperity.

Family agriculture for bottom-up rural development: a case study of the indigenous Mayan population in the Mexican Peninsula

Since pre-colonial times the indigenous communities of Mayan origin in the state of Quintana Roo, Mexico, widely practice home gardens on a sustainable basis as the principal form of family agriculture. This study analyzes the structural complexity, functional diversity and management strategy of these indigenous home gardens in order to attempt to propose recommendations for improved family farming. The Mayan home gardens are structured into three or more vertical layers of multiple plant species of herbs, shrubs and trees, and horizontally into well-defined zones for production of both domestic and wild animals. The home gardens provide multiple services apart from food and nutrition security. For sustainable bottom-up rural development, we recommend the continuation of multifunctional home gardens.

Ecosystem services and adaptation for agriculture and food security: analysis of two decades (1991–2011) of financing by the Global Environment Facility

Investing in global environmental and adaptation benefits in the context of agriculture and food security initiatives can play an important role in promoting sustainable intensification. This is a priority for the Global Environment Facility (GEF), created in 1992 with a mandate to serve as financial mechanism of several multilateral environmental agreements. To demonstrate the nature and extent of GEF financing, we conducted an assessment of the entire portfolio over a period of two decades (1991–2011) to identify projects with direct links to agriculture and food security. A cohort of 192 projects and programs were identified and used as a basis for analyzing trends in GEF financing. The projects and programs together accounted for a total GEF financing of US$1,086.8 million, and attracted an additional US$6,343.5 million from other sources. The value-added of GEF financing for ecosystem services and resilience in production systems was demonstrated through a diversity of interventions in the projects and programs that utilized US$810.6 million of the total financing. The interventions fall into the following four main categories in accordance with priorities of the GEF: sustainable land management (US$179.3 million), management of agrobiodiversity (US$113.4 million), sustainable fisheries and water resource management (US$379.8 million), and climate change adaptation (US$138.1 million). By aligning GEF priorities with global aspirations for sustainable intensification of production systems, the study shows that it is possible to help developing countries tackle food insecurity while generating global environmental benefits for a healthy and resilient planet.

Tracing the Origin and Spread of Agriculture in Europe

The origins of early farming and its spread to Europe have been the subject of major interest for some time. The main controversy today is over the nature of the Neolithic transition in Europe: the extent to which the spread was, for the most part, indigenous and animated by imitatio (cultural diffusion) or else was driven by an influx of dispersing populations (demic diffusion). We analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of the transition using radiocarbon dates from 735 early Neolithic sites in Europe, the Near East, and Anatolia. We compute great-circle and shortest-path distances from each site to 35 possible agricultural centers of origin—ten are based on early sites in the Middle East and 25 are hypothetical locations set at 58 latitude/longitude intervals. We perform a linear fit of distance versus age (and vice versa) for each center. For certain centers, high correlation coefficients (R . 0.8) are obtained. This implies that a steady rate or speed is a good overall approximation for this historical development. The average rate of the Neolithic spread over Europe is 0.6–1.3 km/y (95% confidence interval). This is consistent with the prediction of demic diffusion(0.6–1.1 km/y). An interpolative map of correlation coefficients, obtained by using shortest-path distances, shows that the origins of agriculture were most likely to have occurred in the northern Levantine/Mesopotamian area