A TAXONOMIC REVIEW OF TYLOTOTRITON VERRUCOSUS ANDERSON (AMPHIBIA, CAUDATA, SALAMANDRIDAE)

Generally it has not been recognized that salamanders of two distinctive color morphs currently are assigned to Tylototriton verrucosus Anderson. One form is uniformly dark brown dorsally, with bright orange coloration confined to the ventral edge of the tail; the other has a dark brown to black dorsal ground color with orange dorsolateral warts, an orange vertebral crest, and orange lateral and medial crests on the head. In addition, the limbs and ventrolateral surfaces of the second form have a variable pattern of orange coloration. The brown form occurs in northeastern India, Nepal, northern Burma, Bhutan, northern Thailand, the type locality in extreme western Yunnan, and perhaps in northern Vietnam. The orange-patterned form occurs only in western Yunnan Province, People's Republic of China. The two forms appear to be allopatric but occur close together in the area of the type locality near the Burma border in western Yunnan. There is no evidence of color intergradation in specimens from this region. Analyses of morphometric and meristic characters, however, suggest the possibility of limited genetic exchange between adjacent populations of brown and orange-patterned forms in western Yunnan. The genetic and taxonomic relationships between the two forms is not fully resolved. However, these two highly distinctive forms obviously have evolved along independent trajectories and merit taxonomic recognition. We therefore propose to restrict the concept of Tylototriton verrucosus to the brown form and designate a neotype for that purpose, and we describe a new species to receive the orange-patterned form.

In vitro activities of small peptides from snake venom against clinical isolates of drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The recent re-emergence of tuberculosis, especially the multidrug-resistant cases, has highlighted the importance of screening effective novel drugs against Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In this study, the in vitro activities of small peptides isolated from snake venom were investigated against multidrug-resistant M. tuberculosis. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were determined by the Bactec TB-460 radiometric method. A small peptide with the amino acid sequence ECYRKSDIVTCEPWQKFCYREVTFFPNHPVYLSGCASECTETNSKWCCTTDKCNRARGG (designated as vgf-1) from Naja atra (isolated from Yunnan province of China) venom had in vitro activity against clinically isolated multidrug-resistant strains of M. tuberculosis. The MIC was 8.5 mg/l. The antimycobacterial domain of this 60aa peptide is under investigation. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. and the International Society of Chemotherapy. All rights reserved.

Identification and characterization of a new class of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 recombinants comprised of two circulating recombinant forms, CRF07_BC and CRF08_BC, in China

We identified a new class of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) recombinants (00CN-HH069 and 00CN-HH086) in which further recombination occurred between two established circulating recombinant forms (CRFs). These two isolates were found among 57 HIV-1 samples from a cohort of injecting drug users in eastern Yunnan Province of China. Informative-site analysis in conjunction with bootscanning plots and exploratory tree analysis revealed that these two strains were closely related mosaics comprised of CRF07_BC and CRF08_BC, which are found in China. The genotype screening based on gag-reverse transcriptase sequences if 57 samples from eastern Yunnan identified 47 CRF08_BC specimens (82.5%), 5 CRF07_BC specimens (8.8%), and 3 additional specimens with the novel recombinant structure. These new "second-generation" recombinants thus constitute a substantial proportion (5 of 57; 8.8%) of HIV-1 strains in this population and may belong to a new but yet-undefined class of CRF. This might be the first example of CRFs recombining with each other, leading to the evolution of second-generation inter-CRF recombinants.

Mass rearing of Aphidius gifuensis (Hymenoptera : Aphidiidae) for biological control of Myzus persicae (Homoptera : Aphididae)

The green peach aphid, Myzus persicae, is a major pest of tobacco, Nicotiana tabacum, in Yunnan province, China, where its control still depends on the use of insecticides. In recent years, the local government and farmers have sought to improve the biological control of this tobacco pest. In this paper, we present methods for mass rearing Aphidius gifuensis, a dominant endoparasitoid of M. persicae on tobacco plants in this region. The tobacco cultivar K326 (N. tabacum) was used as the host plant and M. persicae as the host insect. In the greenhouse, we collected tobacco seedlings for about 35 days (i.e., until the six-true-leaf stage), transferred them to 7.5-cm diameter pots, and kept these plants in the greenhouse for another 18 days. These pots were then transferred to an insectary-greenhouse, where the tobacco seedlings were inoculated with five to seven wingless adult M. persicae per pot. After 3 days, the infested seedlings were moved to a second greenhouse to allow the aphid population to increase, and after an additional 4 +/- 1 days when 182 +/- 4.25 aphid adults and nymphs were produced per pot, they were inoculated with A. gifuensis. With this rearing system, we were able to produce 256 +/- 8.8 aphid mummies per pot, with an emergence rate of 95.6 +/- 2.45%; 69% were females. The daily cost of parasite production (recurring costs only) was US$ 0.06 per 1000 aphid mummies. With this technique, we released 109 800 parasitoids in 1998, 196 000 in 1999, 780 000 in 2000, and 5 600 000 in 2001 during a 2-month period each year This production method is discussed with respect to countrywide usage in biological control and integrated control of M. persicae.

Improved suppression of circulating complement does not block acute vascular rejection of pig-to-rhesus monkey cardiac transplants

At present, acute vascular rejection (AVR) remains a primary obstacle inhibiting long-term graft survival in the pig-to-non-human primate transplant model. The present study was undertaken to determine whether repetitive injection of low dose Yunnan-cobra venom factor (Y-CVF), a potent complement inhibitor derived from the venom of Naja kaouthia can completely abrogate hemolytic complement activity and subsequently improve the results in a pig-to-rhesus monkey heterotopic heart transplant model. Nine adult rhesus monkeys received a heterotopic heart transplant from wild-type pigs and the recipients were allocated into two groups: group 1 (n = 4) received repetitive injection of low dose Y-CVF until the end of the study and group 2 (n = 5) did not receive Y-CVF. All recipients were treated with cyclosporine A (CsA), cyclophosphamide (CyP) and steroids. Repetitive Y-CVF treatment led to very dramatic fall in CH50 and serum C3 levels (CH50 < 3 units/C3 remained undetectable throughout the experiment) and successfully prevented hyperacute rejection (HAR), while three of five animals in group 2 underwent HAR. However, the continuous suppression of circulating complement did not prevent AVR and the grafts in group 1 survived from 8 to 13 days. Despite undetectable C3 in circulating blood, C3 deposition was present in these grafts. The venular thrombosis was the predominant histopathologic feature of AVR. We conclude that repetitive injection of low dose Y-CVF can be used to continuously suppress circulating complement in a very potent manner and successfully prevent HAR. However, this therapy did not inhibit complement deposition in the graft and failed to prevent AVR. These data suggest that using alternative pig donors [i.e. human decay accelerating factor (hDAF)-transgenic] in combination with the systemic use of complement inhibitors may be necessary to further control complement activation and improve survival in pig-to-non-human primate xenotransplant model.

Molecular phylogeny and biogeography of woolly flying squirrel (Rodentia : Sciuridae), inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences

To investigate the genetic diversity between the populations of woolly flying squirrels (Eupetaurus) from the eastern and western extremes of the Himalayas, partial mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences (390-810bp) that were determined from the museum specimens were analyzed using maximum parsimony (MP) and maximum likelihood (ML) methods. The molecular data reveal that the two specimens that were collected in northwestern Yunnan (China) are members of the genus Eupetaurus. Reconstructed phylogenetic relationships show that the populations of Eupetaurus in the eastern and western extremes of the Himalayas are two distinct species with significant genetic differences (12%) and diverged about 10.8 million years ago. Eupetaurus is significantly different from Petaurista and Pteromys. The level of estimated pairwise-sequence divergence observed between Eupetaurus and Petaurista or Pteromys is greater than that observed between Eupetaurus and Trogopterus, Belomys, Glaucomys, or Hylopetes. Considering the divergence time of the two Eupetaurus groups, the glaciations and the uplift of the Himalayas and Qinghai-Tibet plateau during the Pliocene-Pleistocene period might be the major factors affecting the present distribution of Eupetaurus along the Himalayas. (C) 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

In vitro anti-HIV and -HSV activity and safety of sodium rutin sulfate as a microbicide candidate

Sodium rutin sulfate (SRS) is a sulfated rutin modified from the natural flavonol glycoside rutin. Here, we investigated its in vitro anti-HIV and -HSV activities and its cytotoxic profile. Fifty percent inhibitory concentration (IC50) values of SRS against HIV-1 X4 virus IIIB, HIV-1 R5 isolates Ada-M and Ba-L were 2.3 +/- 0.2, 4.5 +/- 2.0 and 8.5 +/- 3.8 mu M with a selectivity index (SI) of 563, 575 and 329, respectively. Its IC50 against primary R5 HIV-1 isolate from Yunnan province in China was 13.1 +/- 5.5 mu M, with a Sl of 197. In contrast, unsulfated rutin had no activity against any of the HIV-1 isolates tested. Further study indicated that SRS blocked viral entry and virus-cell fusion likely through interacting with the HIV- I envelope glycoprotein. SRS also demonstrated some activity against human herpes simplex virus (HSV) with an IC50 of 88.3 +/- 0.1 mu M and a Sl of 30. The 50% cytotoxicity concentration (CC50) of SRS was >3.0 mM, as determined in human genital ME 180, HeLa and primary human foreskin fibroblast cells. Minimum inhibitory concentration of SRS for vaginal lactobacilli was >3.0 mM. These results collectively indicate that SRS represents a novel candidate for anti-HIV-1/HSV microbicide development. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Social organization of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) at Deqin, China

Data on social organization of two bands of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) 14 were collected when the monkeys were crossing an open spot at Nanren and Bamei (northwest of Yunnan, China) using a sampling rule where individuals wit

Three new species of Tubificinae, Oligochaeta, from two plateau lakes in Southwest China

Three new species of Tubificinae (Naididae, Oligochaeta), Varichaetadrilus vestibulatus n. sp., Aulodrilus apeniatus n. sp., and Ilyodrilus mesoprostatus n. sp., are reported from Fuxian Lake and Xingyun Lake of Yunnan Province, Southwest China. V. vestibulatus differs from its allies by possessing modified spermathecal chaetae and thinner cylindrical penial sheaths. A. apeniatus is unique in the genus by having no penis. I. mesoprostatus is distinguishable from congeners by its prostate glands joining middle portion of atria and having concave, cone-shaped cuticular penial sheaths. Twenty-eight species of freshwater oligochaetes have hitherto been recorded from Yunnan Province, including five endemic species from three plateau lakes.

Ecology of macrozoobenthic communities in two plateau lakes of Southwest China

Ecological studies on macrozoobenthos were conducted in two small plateau lakes in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, Southwest China: Xingyun Lake (XL), a eutrophic lake whose main source of primary production was phytoplankton (Chl a=99.76 +/- 24.01 mu g/L), and Yangzong Lake (YL), a mesotrophic lake. Sampling was carried out from October 2002 to May 2004. Altogether 23 benthic taxa were identified in XL and 21 taxa in YL. The density of benthos in XL was much lower than that in YL, but the biomass was about equal in the two lakes, being 1 423 ind/m(2) and 8.71 g/m(2) in XL and 4 249 ind/m(2) and 8.60 g/m(2) in YL. The dominant species were Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Branchiura sowerbyi, Aulodrilus pluriseta and Chironomus sp. in XL and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri, Aulodrilus pluriseta and Bellamya sp. in YL. Seasonal fluctuation occurred, showing richer species in summer and winter, but the density and biomass varied in different ways in the two lakes. Analyses on functional feeding groups indicate that collector-gatherers were predominant, but the relative abundances of other groups were different. Stepwise multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the water depth, conductivity and chlorophyll a were the key factors affecting macrozoobenthic abundance in the lakes.

Microcystin-RR induces physiological stress and cell death in the cyanobacterium Aphanizomenon sp DC01 isolated from Lake Dianchi, China

The phytoplankton community in Lake Dianchi (Yunnan Province, Southwestern China) is dominated in April by a bloom of Aphanizomenon, that disappears Suddenly and is displaced by a Microcystis bloom in May. The reasons for the rapid bloom disappearance phenomenon and the temporal variability in the composition of phytoplankton assemblages are poorly understood. Cell growth, ultrastructure and physiological changes were examined in cultures of Aphanizomenon sp. DC01 isolated from Lake Dianchi exposed to different closes of rnicrocystin-RR (MC-RR) produced by the Microcystis bloom. MC-RR concentrations above 100 mu g L-1 markedly inhibited the pigment (chlorophyll-a, phycocyanin) synthesis and caused an increase of soluble carbohydrate and protein contents and nitrate reductase activity of toxin-treated blue-green algae. A drastic. reduction in photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) was also found. Morphological examinationn showed that the Aphanizomenon filaments disintegrated and file cells lysed gradually after 48 h Of toxin exposure. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that cellular inclusions of stressed cells almost leaked out completely and the cell membranes were grossly damaged. These findings demonstrate the allelopathic activity of Microcystis aeruginosa inducing physiological stress and cell death of Aphanizomenon sp. DC01 Although the active concentrations of microcystin were rather high, we propose that microcystin may function as allelopathic Substance due to inhomogeneous toxin concentrations close to Microcystis cells. Hence, it may play a role in species Succession of Aphanizomenon and Microcystis in Lake Dianchi.

The synthesis of astaxanthin esters, independent of the formation of cysts, highly correlates with the synthesis of fatty acids in Haematococcus pluvialis

The compositions and contents of astaxanthin esters and fatty acids in four types of Haematococcus pluvialis cells were studied by HPLC and GC-MS. Results showed that the synthesis and accumulation of astaxanthin was independent of the formation of cysts, but was highly correlated with the synthesis and accumulation of fatty acids, though it is an well known phenomenon that the accumulation of astaxanthin is usually accompanied by the formation of cyst. The red cysts contain more than 30% of fatty acids, with 81% of the unsaturated fatty acids. Taken together, besides a resource of astaxanthin, H. pluvialis would be a good resource of valuable fatty acids.

Macrozoobenthic community of Fuxian Lake, the deepest lake of southwest China

Located in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau in southwest China, Fuxian Lake covers an area of 211 km(2), with maximum depth of 155 m. It is known to have a unique fauna, including 14 described endemic species. In order to describe the zoobenthic community of the lake more completely, the present study was conducted from August 2002 to August 2003. Altogether 62 benthic taxa, including 22 oligochaetes, 21 molluscs and 18 insects were identified, of which the dominant taxa belonged to Potamothrix, Procladius and Paraprososthenia. The standing stocks of benthos were much higher in the littoral (824 ind/m(2) in density, 3.72 g/m(2) in biomass) than in the profundal region (23 ind/m(2) in density, 0.10 g/m(2) in biomass). Species richness was greatest in summer and standing stocks were larger in spring and summer than in other seasons. Analyses of functional feeding groups indicated that collector-gatherers and scrapers were predominant in entire lake. Stepwise multiple regression analysis demonstrated that the water depth is the most important factor affecting the distribution of macrozoobenthos. (C) 2008 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.

Taxonomic notes on water bloom forming Microcystis species (Cyanophyta) from China - An example from samples of the Dianchi Lake

Ten common species of Microcystis, based on the examination of water samples from the Dianchi Lake, Yunnan, China, were morphologically described, and their taxonomy was also discussed. They are Microcystis aeruginosa, M botrys, M firma, M flos-aquae, M ichthyoblabe, M novacekii, M pseudofilamentosa, M smithii, M viridis and M wesenbergii. Taxonomic status of other Microcystis species reported in China was also evaluated.

Diet overlap between the endemic fish Anablariflus grahami(Cyprinidae) and the exotic noodlefish Neosalanx taihuensis (Salangidae) in lake Fuxian, China

We studied diet composition and overlap of the exotic noodlefish (Neosalanx taihuensis) and the endemic fish Anaborilius grahami in a deep, oligotrophic lake in the Yunnan Plateau. A. grahami dominated the fish community in Lake Fuxian before the invasion of N. taihuensis in 1982, but it is now in the process of extinction, corresponding with an explosive increase in N. taihuensis population. Schoener's index (alpha=0.773) indicate that N. taihuensis and A. grahami have significant diet overlap, with both fish feeding mainly on zooplankton. An increased proportion of littoral prey, such as Procladius spp., Coleoptera, and epiphytes, in the diet of A. grahami indicated that this endemic fish shifted its main habitat from the off-shore zone in the late 1980s to the littoral zone at the present. A difference in reproduction between the two fishes, along with the overfishing, may have exacerbated the occupation of A. grahami's pelagic niche by N. taihuensis. The endemic species has shown large competitive disadvantage for food and space in the presence of N. taihuensis.