Determinantes da apreciação da taxa de câmbio real brasileira nos anos 2000

A forte apreciação cambial que o Brasil sofreu na última década se traduziu em um novo debate acerca da hipótese de Doença Holandesa no país. Como a queda da taxa de câmbio real ocorreu em um período de alta de preços de commodities e nos últimos anos, especialmente após a crise de 2008, vimos uma maior concentração da pauta exportadora em produtos primários, muitos economistas argumentam que a apreciação foi consequência do boom de commodities e que, em razão disso, o Brasil poderia estar sofrendo da Doença Holandesa. Este trabalho mostra que o boom de commodities não foi a principal causa da apreciação da taxa de câmbio real e não representou uma maior dependência destas mercadorias. A mudança do perfil de risco da economia brasileira foi um dos fatores mais importante para a queda da taxa de câmbio. Concluímos, portanto, que a recente perda de competitividade dos demais setores exportadores não pode ser atribuída exclusivamente à valorização das commodities.

Global governance, currency and trade: implications of one on the other, common problems and how to address cooperation through law at the international level

How to deal with the impacts of the exchange rate on the trade balance of Brazil? There is not a single answer to such question. In order to find out some legal approaches for this matter, this paper aims to describe and analyze the role of the IMF, WTO and the governments of Brazil and the United States on the currency misalignments, especially the extraterritorial effects of such misalignment on the Brazil’s bilateral trade with the United States. The article concludes that the Currency Swap Agreements and other bilateral solutions may minimize the distortions that the Brazilian balance of payment against the USA is carrying, due to the lack of legal solutions for the problem of the exchange rate misalignments that Brazil is facing.

Price discovery in dual-class shares across multiple markets

We extend the standard price discovery analysis to estimate the information share of dual-class shares across domestic and foreign markets. By examining both common and preferred shares, we aim to extract information not only about the fundamental value of the rm, but also about the dual-class premium. In particular, our interest lies on the price discovery mechanism regulating the prices of common and preferred shares in the BM&FBovespa as well as the prices of their ADR counterparts in the NYSE and in the Arca platform. However, in the presence of contemporaneous correlation between the innovations, the standard information share measure depends heavily on the ordering we attribute to prices in the system. To remain agnostic about which are the leading share class and market, one could for instance compute some weighted average information share across all possible orderings. This is extremely inconvenient given that we are dealing with 2 share prices in Brazil, 4 share prices in the US, plus the exchange rate (and hence over 5,000 permutations!). We thus develop a novel methodology to carry out price discovery analyses that does not impose any ex-ante assumption about which share class or trading platform conveys more information about shocks in the fundamental price. As such, our procedure yields a single measure of information share, which is invariant to the ordering of the variables in the system. Simulations of a simple market microstructure model show that our information share estimator works pretty well in practice. We then employ transactions data to study price discovery in two dual-class Brazilian stocks and their ADRs. We uncover two interesting ndings. First, the foreign market is at least as informative as the home market. Second, shocks in the dual-class premium entail a permanent e ect in normal times, but transitory in periods of nancial distress. We argue that the latter is consistent with the expropriation of preferred shareholders as a class.

Mitigação de exposição a juros e moedas por meio de instrumento de dívidas corporativas no Brasil

Este artigo busca analisar se empresas utilizam instrumentos de dívida corporativa para fazer gestão de risco tanto à exposição à taxa de juros quanto à exposição cambial. Comparamos os coeficientes de regressões para avaliar a exposição a tais fatores de risco antes e depois da emissão da dívida corporativa. Utilizamos uma amostra de emissões de debêntures de empresas brasileiras emitidas no Brasil e de bonds de empresas brasileiras emitidas em dólar. Os dados abrangem o período de janeiro de 2003 a dezembro de 2012. Não encontramos evidência do uso de instrumentos de emissão de dívida corporativa local e internacional como mecanismo de hedge à taxa de juros e à variação da taxa de câmbio. Encontramos evidência de que o derivativo para hedge cambial é utilizado pela maioria das empresas emissoras de bonds. Entretanto, não observamos o mesmo comportamento quando da exposição à taxa de juros para emissoras de dívida corporativa local.

Relação entre as componentes principais da estrutura a termo da taxa de juros brasileira e as variáveis macroeconômicas

Este trabalho observa como as variáveis macroeconômicas (expectativa de inflação, juro real, hiato do produto e a variação cambial) influenciam a dinâmica da Estrutura a Termo da Taxa de Juros (ETTJ). Esta dinâmica foi verificada introduzindo a teoria de Análise de Componentes Principais (ACP) para capturar o efeito das componentes mais relevantes na ETTJ (nível, inclinação e curvatura). Utilizando-se as estimativas por mínimos quadrados ordinários e pelo método generalizado dos momentos, foi verificado que existe uma relação estatisticamente significante entre as variáveis macroeconômicas e as componentes principais da ETTJ.

Time-dependent or state-dependent pricing? : evidence from a large currency devaluation episode

Duas classes de modelos buscam explicar o padrão de ajustamento de preço das firmas: modelos tempo-dependente e estado-dependente. O objetivo deste trabalho é levantar algumas evidencias empíricas de modo a distinguir os modelos, ou seja, identificar de que maneira as firmas realmente precificam. Para isso, escolheu-se a grande desvalorização cambial de 1999 como principal ferramenta e ambiente de análise. A hipótese fundamental é que o choque cambial impacta significativamente o custo de algumas indústrias, em alguns casos induzindo-as a alterarem seus preço após o choque. A partir de uma imensa base de micro dados formada por preços que compõem o CPI, algumas estimações importantes como a probabilidade e a magnitude média das trocas foram levantadas. A magnitude é dada por uma média simples, enquanto a probabilidade é estimada pelo método da máxima verossimilhança. Os resultados indicam um comportamento de precificação similar ao proposto por modelos estado-dependente.

Os determinantes macroeconômicos da estrutura a termo das expectativas de inflação no Brasil

Este trabalho visa analisar a dinâmica das expectativas de inflação em função das condições macroeconômicas. Para tal, extraímos as curvas de inflação implícita na curva de títulos públicos pré-fixados e estimamos um modelo de fatores dinâmicos para sua estrutura a termo. Os fatores do modelo correspondem ao nível, inclinação e curvatura da estrutura a termo, que variam ao longo do tempo conforme os movimentos no câmbio, na inflação, no índice de commodities e no risco Brasil implícito no CDS. Após um choque de um desvio padrão no câmbio ou na inflação, a curva de inflação implícita se desloca positivamente, especialmente no curto prazo e no longo prazo. Um choque no índice de commodities também desloca a curva de inflação implícita positivamente, afetando especialmente a parte curta da curva. Em contraste, um choque no risco Brasil desloca a curva de inflação implícita paralelamente para baixo.

Três ensaios sobre política monetária e crédito

In the first essay, "Determinants of Credit Expansion in Brazil", analyzes the determinants of credit using an extensive bank level panel dataset. Brazilian economy has experienced a major boost in leverage in the first decade of 2000 as a result of a set factors ranging from macroeconomic stability to the abundant liquidity in international financial markets before 2008 and a set of deliberate decisions taken by President Lula's to expand credit, boost consumption and gain political support from the lower social strata. As relevant conclusions to our investigation we verify that: credit expansion relied on the reduction of the monetary policy rate, international financial markets are an important source of funds, payroll-guaranteed credit and investment grade status affected positively credit supply. We were not able to confirm the importance of financial inclusion efforts. The importance of financial sector sanity indicators of credit conditions cannot be underestimated. These results raise questions over the sustainability of this expansion process and financial stability in the future. The second essay, “Public Credit, Monetary Policy and Financial Stability”, discusses the role of public credit. The supply of public credit in Brazil has successfully served to relaunch the economy after the Lehman-Brothers demise. It was later transformed into a driver for economic growth as well as a regulation device to force private banks to reduce interest rates. We argue that the use of public funds to finance economic growth has three important drawbacks: it generates inflation, induces higher loan rates and may induce financial instability. An additional effect is the prevention of market credit solutions. This study contributes to the understanding of the costs and benefits of credit as a fiscal policy tool. The third essay, “Bayesian Forecasting of Interest Rates: Do Priors Matter?”, discusses the choice of priors when forecasting short-term interest rates. Central Banks that commit to an Inflation Target monetary regime are bound to respond to inflation expectation spikes and product hiatus widening in a clear and transparent way by abiding to a Taylor rule. There are various reports of central banks being more responsive to inflationary than to deflationary shocks rendering the monetary policy response to be indeed non-linear. Besides that there is no guarantee that coefficients remain stable during time. Central Banks may switch to a dual target regime to consider deviations from inflation and the output gap. The estimation of a Taylor rule may therefore have to consider a non-linear model with time varying parameters. This paper uses Bayesian forecasting methods to predict short-term interest rates. We take two different approaches: from a theoretic perspective we focus on an augmented version of the Taylor rule and include the Real Exchange Rate, the Credit-to-GDP and the Net Public Debt-to-GDP ratios. We also take an ”atheoretic” approach based on the Expectations Theory of the Term Structure to model short-term interest. The selection of priors is particularly relevant for predictive accuracy yet, ideally, forecasting models should require as little a priori expert insight as possible. We present recent developments in prior selection, in particular we propose the use of hierarchical hyper-g priors for better forecasting in a framework that can be easily extended to other key macroeconomic indicators.

Um estudo sobre a curva de demanada agregada brasileira

Muitos trabalhos têm sido elaborados a respeito da curva de demanda agregada brasileira, a curva IS, desde a implementação do Plano Real e, principalmente, após a adoção do regime de câmbio flutuante. Este trabalho tem como objetivo estimar algumas especificações para a curva IS brasileira, para o período após a implementação do câmbio flutuante, do regime de metas de inflação e da Lei de Responsabilidade Fiscal, i.e. após o ano 2000. As especificações para as curvas estimadas tiveram como base o modelo novo-keynesiano, tendo sido incluídas algumas variáveis explicativas buscando captar o efeito na demanda agregada da maior intermediação financeira na potência da política monetária e o efeito do esforço fiscal feito pelo governo brasileiro. O trabalho utiliza o Método dos Momentos Generalizados (MMG) para estimar a curva IS em sua especificação foward-looking e o Método dos Mínimos Quadrados Ordinários (MQO) para estimar a curva IS em sua versão backward-looking. Os resultados mostram forte significância para o hiato do produto em todas as especificações. As especificações foward-looking mostram coeficientes significantes, porém com sinais opostos ao esperado para os juros e superávit primário. Nas regressões backward-looking o sinal dos coeficientes encontrados são os esperados, porém, mostram-se não significantes.

The access to demand

In this paper I argue that, in developing countries, sufficient aggregate demand is not enough to motivate investment and achieve full employment. Besides, according to the Keynesian developmental macroeconomics under construction, competent business enterprises must have access to that demand –access which is denied to most of them because developing countries face the tendency to the cyclical and chronic overvaluation of the exchange rate

As intervenções do Banco do Central do Brasil no mercado de câmbio e seus efeitos no nível intradiário da taxa de câmbio

Este trabalho tem como objetivo investigar o efeito das intervenções cambiais realizadas pelo Banco Central do Brasil sobre o nível intradiário da taxa de câmbio no Brasil. Para isso é utilizada uma abordagem de estudo de eventos, cruzando as cotações tick-by-tick dos contratos de dólar futuro negociados na BM&FBOVESPA com o instante em que ocorreram as intervenções, no período de outubro de 2011 a março de 2014. Foram considerados nas análises não apenas o momento da intervenção como também o momento do anúncio. Os resultados indicaram que o mercado reage de forma distinta a cada tipo de intervenção, sendo a reação acentuada quando a intervenção não é anunciada previamente ao mercado. As intervenções via swap cambial ou dólar pronto geraram efeitos significativos e relevantes no nível da taxa de câmbio. Por outro lado, as intervenções através de leilão de linha não afetaram significativamente a taxa de câmbio.

A quase-estagnação brasileira e sua explicação novo-desenvolvimentista

The Brazilian economy is quasi-stagnant since 1980, with exception of the short 2006-2010 boom, caused by the high prices of the commodities. Up to 1994, the causes were the major financial crisis of the 1980s and the ensuing high inertial inflation. Since these two causes were overcome, the Brazilian economy should have resumed growth, but didn’t. According to new developmental macroeconomics, the new fact that explains this low growth is the 1990-91 trade liberalization, which had as non-predicted consequence the suspension of the neutralization of the Dutch disease. This fact made the Brazilian manufacturing industry to have since then a competitive disadvantage of 20 to 25%, which is causing premature deindustrialization and quasi-stagnation. There is a solution for this stalemate today, but liberal as well as developmental Brazilian economists are not being able to consider the new macroeconomic models that justify it

Partial economic reforrns and financial crises: an emerging markets perspective

The recent emerging market experiences have posed a challenge to the conventional wisdom that unsustainable fiscal deficits are the key to understanding financial crises in these countries. The health of the domestic banking system has emerged as the main driving force behind the perverse dynamics of partial reforms. The current paper shares this view and uses a model of contractual inefliciencies in the banking sector to understand the dynamics of these reforms. We find that the threat of a large exchange rate devaluation depends on the stock of international reserves relative to the stock of domestic credit that must be extended by the Central Bank in response to a large capital outflow. Moreover, if a country has a weak banking sector but high net reserve ratios, the capital flow reversal might only increase the vulnerability to a currency crisis without necessarily causing it. The results are in accordance with much of the empiricalliterature on the determinants of financiaI crises in emerging markets. Some aspectsof the recent policy debate on the introduction of capital controls are also analysed.

An overview of some historical Brazilian macroeconomic series and some open questions

This paper presents an overview of the Brazilian macroeconomy by analyzing the evolution of some specific time series. The presentation is made through a sequence of graphs. Several remarkable historical points and open questions come up in the data. These include, among others, the drop in output growth as of 1980, the clear shift from investments to government current expenditures which started in the beginning of the 80s, the notable way how money, prices and exchange rate correlate in an environment of permanently high inHation, the historical coexistence of high rates of growth and high rates of inHation, as well as the drastic increase of the velocity of circulation of money between the 70s and the mid-90s. It is also shown that, although net external liabilities have increased substantially in current dollars after the Real Plan, its ratio with respect to exports in 2004 is practically the same as the one existing in 1986; and that residents in Brazil, in average, owed two more months of their final income (GNP) to abroad between 1995-2004 than they did between 1990 and 1994. Variance decompositions show that money has been important to explain prices, but not output (GDP).

The forward and the equity premium puzzles: two symptoms of the same illness?

The Forward Premium Puzzle (FPP) is how the empirical observation of a negative relation between future changes in the spot rates and the forward premium is known. Modeling this forward bias as a risk premium and under weak assumptions on the behavior of the pricing kernel, we characterize the potential bias that is present in the regressions where the FPP is observed and we identify the necessary and sufficient conditions that the pricing kernel has to satisfy to account for the predictability of exchange rate movements. Next, we estimate the pricing kernel applying two methods: i) one, du.e to Araújo et aI. (2005), that exploits the fact that the pricing kernel is a serial correlation common feature of asset prices, and ii) a traditional principal component analysis used as a procedure 1;0 generate a statistical factor modeI. Then, using on the sample and out of the sample exercises, we are able to show that the same kernel that explains the Equity Premi um Puzzle (EPP) accounts for the FPP in all our data sets. This suggests that the quest for an economic mo deI that generates a pricing kernel which solves the EPP may double its prize by simultaneously accounting for the FPP.