International accounting harmonisation - A comparison of Spain, Sweden and Austria

Despite attempts to secure harmonisation of accounting practice,significant variations in accounting rules and practice continueto arise in European countries, variations which give rise tocompliance costs for multinational companies.Firstly, this paper considers the relevance of internationalaccounting harmonisation for European business. It then proceedsto examine accounting regulation in three countries: Spain, Swedenand Austria, highlighting the key regulatory issues of the 'trueand fair' view requirement and the link between taxation andaccounting. The three countries are selected because of theinteresting contrasts which they provide; these contrasts areexamined in detail in the paper.The work is based upon a series of interviews carried out withleading accounting practitioners in the three countries during1996-97.The paper concludes that there are significant obstacles toaccounting harmonisation in Europe and that there is potentialfor continuing diversity of national accounting practice.

Creative accounting: Nature, incidence and ethical issues

This paper explores the nature and incidence of creative accounting practiceswithin the context of ethical considerations.It explores several definitionsof creative accounting and the potential and the range of reasons for acompany's directors to engage in creative accounting. Later the paperconsiders the various ways in which creative accounting can be undertaken andsummarizes some empirical research on the nature and incidence of creativeaccounting. The ethical dimension of creative accounting is discussed, drawingevidence from several empirical studies. The paper concludes with the analysisof possible solutions for the creative accounting problem.

When are layoffs acceptable? Evidence from a quasi-experiment

Many authors have discussed a decline in internal labor markets and an apparent shift to a new employment contract, characterized by less commitment between employer and employee and more portable skills. These discussions occur without much evidence on what employment contract employees currently feel is fair. We perfomed quasi-experimental surveys to study when employees in the U.S. andCanada feel that layoffs are fair.Layoffs were perceived as more fair if they were due to lower product demand than if the result of employee suggestions. This result appears to be solely due to norms of reciprocity (companiesshould not punish employees for their efforts), rather than norms of sharing rents, as new technology was also considered a justification for layoffs.Consistent with theories of distributive and procedural equity, layoffs were perceived as more fair if the CEO voluntarily shared the pain. CEO bonuses due to layoffs lowered their reported fairness only slightly.Respondents in Silicon Valley were not more accepting of layoffsthan were those in Canada on average, although the justificationsconsidered valid differed slightly.

A burst of segmental duplications in the genome of the African great ape ancestor

It is generally accepted that the extent of phenotypic change between human and great apes is dissonant with the rate of molecular change. Between these two groups, proteins are virtually identical, cytogenetically there are few rearrangements that distinguish ape-human chromosomes, and rates of single-base-pair change and retrotransposon activity have slowed particularly within hominid lineages when compared to rodents or monkeys. Studies of gene family evolution indicate that gene loss and gain are enriched within the primate lineage. Here, we perform a systematic analysis of duplication content of four primate genomes (macaque, orang-utan, chimpanzee and human) in an effort to understand the pattern and rates of genomic duplication during hominid evolution. We find that the ancestral branch leading to human and African great apes shows the most significant increase in duplication activity both in terms of base pairs and in terms of events. This duplication acceleration within the ancestral species is significant when compared to lineage-specific rate estimates even after accounting for copy-number polymorphism and homoplasy. We discover striking examples of recurrent and independent gene-containing duplications within the gorilla and chimpanzee that are absent in the human lineage. Our results suggest that the evolutionary properties of copy-number mutation differ significantly from other forms of genetic mutation and, in contrast to the hominid slowdown of single-base-pair mutations, there has been a genomic burst of duplication activity at this period during human evolution.

Comparison of the polynomial model against explicit measurements of noise components for different mammography systems.

Given the adverse impact of image noise on the perception of important clinical details in digital mammography, routine quality control measurements should include an evaluation of noise. The European Guidelines, for example, employ a second-order polynomial fit of pixel variance as a function of detector air kerma (DAK) to decompose noise into quantum, electronic and fixed pattern (FP) components and assess the DAK range where quantum noise dominates. This work examines the robustness of the polynomial method against an explicit noise decomposition method. The two methods were applied to variance and noise power spectrum (NPS) data from six digital mammography units. Twenty homogeneously exposed images were acquired with PMMA blocks for target DAKs ranging from 6.25 to 1600 µGy. Both methods were explored for the effects of data weighting and squared fit coefficients during the curve fitting, the influence of the additional filter material (2 mm Al versus 40 mm PMMA) and noise de-trending. Finally, spatial stationarity of noise was assessed.Data weighting improved noise model fitting over large DAK ranges, especially at low detector exposures. The polynomial and explicit decompositions generally agreed for quantum and electronic noise but FP noise fraction was consistently underestimated by the polynomial method. Noise decomposition as a function of position in the image showed limited noise stationarity, especially for FP noise; thus the position of the region of interest (ROI) used for noise decomposition may influence fractional noise composition. The ROI area and position used in the Guidelines offer an acceptable estimation of noise components. While there are limitations to the polynomial model, when used with care and with appropriate data weighting, the method offers a simple and robust means of examining the detector noise components as a function of detector exposure.

The activity of Crocidura russula (Insectivora, Soricidae) in the field and in captivity

Studied was the activity of the shrew Crocidura russula in the field (by radioactive tracking) and in laboratory (by continuous recording of nest temperature and by video). Under natural conditions, the total daily activity remained nearly constant throughout the year accounting for about 33 % of the total time. Activity was polyphasic and showed a daily rhythm; on an average, one activity phases occured every two hours and lasted 36 min. The activity periods of captive shrews were generally shorter, but always more frequent, and the total daily activity of captive shrews was much lower in winter. Two experiments carried out in the filed on shrews artificially fed, demonstrated that under natural conditions, foraging takes a major part of the winter activity. The activity patterns of Crocidura russula are compared with those of another European shrew, Sorex araneus.

Is accountability a double-edged sword? Experimental evidence on the effectiveness of internal controls to prevent fraud

Recent legislations oblige organizations to monitor the effectiveness of internal control mechanisms that are necessary to prevent fraud. However, little is known about the effectiveness of different internal controls. We investigate whether the duty to sign work results-one of the most prominent internal control mechanisms-is effective to prevent fraud under different superior instructions. We use a 2×2 between-subjects experimental design with accountability (duty to sign work results vs. no duty to sign) and superior instructions (with vs. without profit maximization cue) as independent variables. Both manipulations of superior instructions reminded people to respect accounting standards and principles but in one condition, an instruction to increase revenues was integrated as profit maximization cue. We expected this cue to trigger a profit maximization decision frame that increases the likelihood for fraudulent revenue recording. 58 managers from an executive MBA class participated in the experiment. We find that superior instructions interact with accountability. Fraudulent revenue recording was particularly observed when people received instructions to increase revenues and had to sign their work results. Consequently, fraudulent behavior can occur without pressure to commit fraud due to profit maximization cues that are communicated by a superior and despite implemented internal control mechanisms. We discuss possible implications of our results for the prevention of fraudulent behavior.

How adult specialists deal with the principles of a successful transition.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate whether adult specialists comply with the basic principles for a successful transition of adolescents with chronic disorders, and to determine whether the characteristics of the adult specialists have an influence on applying these principles. METHODS: Out of 299 adult specialists in four French-speaking Swiss cantons, 209 (70%) answered a paper-and-pencil mailed questionnaire between May and July 2007. Only those having received the transfer of at least one adolescent in the previous 2 years (N=102) were included in the analysis. We analyzed four dependent variables: discussing common concerns of adolescent patients, seeing the patient alone, having a transition protocol, and having a previous contact with the pediatric specialist. A logistic regression was performed for each dependent variable controlling for the physicians' characteristics (number of transfers, age, gender, workplace, and perceived experience). RESULTS: Fifty-four percent of the physicians did not spend time alone with their patients, and sensitive issues such as sexuality or substance use were not widely discussed with their young patients. Most respondents (59%) did not have an established protocol, and 54% did not have any contact with the pediatric specialist. In the multivariate analyses, the adult specialists' characteristics had little impact. CONCLUSIONS: For many adolescents with chronic disorders the transition from pediatric to adult healthcare seems to be limited to a simple transfer, often lacking adequate communication between physicians. Applying simple but basic principles such as a good coordination between providers would probably improve the quality of healthcare of adolescents with chronic illness.

IPERS 2005 to 2009 Experience Study, June 2010

It is a pleasure to submit this report of our investigation of the experience of the Iowa Public Employees’ Retirement System for the period of July 1, 2005 through June 30, 2009. The set of assumptions recommended as a result of this study will be used in the June 30, 2010 actuarial valuation of IPERS which will be used to analyze the funding status of the system, calculate the actuarial and statutory employer contribution rates, and disclose employer liabilities for financial statements. The purpose of this report is to communicate the results of our review of the actuarial methods and assumptions to be used in the completion of the upcoming valuation. Our recommendations represent changes from the prior methods or assumptions, which are intended to better anticipate the emerging experience of the System. Actual future experience, however, may differ from these assumptions. In preparing this report, we relied without audit on information supplied by IPERS staff. In our examination, we have found the data to be reasonably consistent and comparable with data used for other purposes. It should be noted that if any data or other information is inaccurate or incomplete, our calculations might need to be revised. We would like to acknowledge the help given by IPERS staff in the preparation of this report. We hereby certify that, to the best of our knowledge and belief, this report is complete and accurate and has been prepared in accordance with generally recognized and accepted actuarial principles and practices which are consistent with the principles prescribed by the Actuarial Standards Board (ASB) and the Code of Professional Conduct and qualification Standards for Public Statements of Actuarial Opinion of the American Academy of Actuaries.

Aggregation and errors in management accounting

Il est important pour les entreprises de compresser les informations détaillées dans des sets d'information plus compréhensibles. Au chapitre 1, je résume et structure la littérature sur le sujet « agrégation d'informations » en contrôle de gestion. Je récapitule l'analyse coûts-bénéfices que les comptables internes doivent considérer quand ils décident des niveaux optimaux d'agrégation d'informations. Au-delà de la perspective fondamentale du contenu d'information, les entreprises doivent aussi prendre en considération des perspectives cogni- tives et comportementales. Je développe ces aspects en faisant la part entre la comptabilité analytique, les budgets et plans, et la mesure de la performance. Au chapitre 2, je focalise sur un biais spécifique qui se crée lorsque les informations incertaines sont agrégées. Pour les budgets et plans, des entreprises doivent estimer les espérances des coûts et des durées des projets, car l'espérance est la seule mesure de tendance centrale qui est linéaire. A la différence de l'espérance, des mesures comme le mode ou la médiane ne peuvent pas être simplement additionnés. En considérant la forme spécifique de distributions des coûts et des durées, l'addition des modes ou des médianes résultera en une sous-estimation. Par le biais de deux expériences, je remarque que les participants tendent à estimer le mode au lieu de l'espérance résultant en une distorsion énorme de l'estimati¬on des coûts et des durées des projets. Je présente également une stratégie afin d'atténuer partiellement ce biais. Au chapitre 3, j'effectue une étude expérimentale pour comparer deux approches d'esti¬mation du temps qui sont utilisées en comptabilité analytique, spécifiquement « coûts basés sur les activités (ABC) traditionnelles » et « time driven ABC » (TD-ABC). Au contraire des affirmations soutenues par les défenseurs de l'approche TD-ABC, je constate que cette dernière n'est pas nécessairement appropriée pour les calculs de capacité. Par contre, je démontre que le TD-ABC est plus approprié pour les allocations de coûts que l'approche ABC traditionnelle. - It is essential for organizations to compress detailed sets of information into more comprehensi¬ve sets, thereby, establishing sharp data compression and good decision-making. In chapter 1, I review and structure the literature on information aggregation in management accounting research. I outline the cost-benefit trade-off that management accountants need to consider when they decide on the optimal levels of information aggregation. Beyond the fundamental information content perspective, organizations also have to account for cognitive and behavi¬oral perspectives. I elaborate on these aspects differentiating between research in cost accounti¬ng, budgeting and planning, and performance measurement. In chapter 2, I focus on a specific bias that arises when probabilistic information is aggregated. In budgeting and planning, for example, organizations need to estimate mean costs and durations of projects, as the mean is the only measure of central tendency that is linear. Different from the mean, measures such as the mode or median cannot simply be added up. Given the specific shape of cost and duration distributions, estimating mode or median values will result in underestimations of total project costs and durations. In two experiments, I find that participants tend to estimate mode values rather than mean values resulting in large distortions of estimates for total project costs and durations. I also provide a strategy that partly mitigates this bias. In the third chapter, I conduct an experimental study to compare two approaches to time estimation for cost accounting, i.e., traditional activity-based costing (ABC) and time-driven ABC (TD-ABC). Contrary to claims made by proponents of TD-ABC, I find that TD-ABC is not necessarily suitable for capacity computations. However, I also provide evidence that TD-ABC seems better suitable for cost allocations than traditional ABC.

Radioimmunotherapy confers long-term survival to lymphoma patients with acceptable toxicity: registry analysis by the international radioimmunotherapy network.

The Radioimmunotherapy Network (RIT-N) is a Web-based, international registry collecting long-term observational data about radioimmunotherapy-treated patients with malignant lymphoma outside randomized clinical studies. The RIT-N collects unbiased data on treatment indications, disease stages, patients' conditions, lymphoma subtypes, and hematologic side effects of radioimmunotherapy treatment. Methods: RIT-N is located at the University of Gottingen, Germany, and collected data from 14 countries. Data were entered by investigators into a Web-based central database managed by an independent clinical research organization. Results: Patients (1,075) were enrolled from December 2006 until November 2009, and 467 patients with an observation time of at least 12 mo were included in the following analysis. Diagnoses were as follows: 58% follicular lymphoma and 42% other B-cell lymphomas. The mean overall survival was 28 mo for follicular lymphoma and 26 mo for other lymphoma subtypes. Hematotoxicity was mild for hemoglobin (World Health Organization grade II), with a median nadir of 10 g/dL, but severe (World Health Organization grade III) for platelets and leukocytes, with a median nadir of 7,000/mu L and 2.2/mu L, respectively. Conclusion: Clinical usage of radioimmunotherapy differs from the labeled indications and can be assessed by this registry, enabling analyses of outcome and toxicity data beyond clinical trials. This analysis proves that radioimmunotherapy in follicular lymphoma and other lymphoma subtypes is a safe and efficient treatment option.

Building a Social Accounting Matrix within the ESA95 Framework: Obtaining a Dataset for Applied General Equilibrium Modelling

This research provides a description of the process followed in order to assemble a "Social Accounting Matrix" for Spain corresponding to the year 2000 (SAMSP00). As argued in the paper, this process attempts to reconcile ESA95 conventions with requirements of applied general equilibrium modelling. Particularly, problems related to the level of aggregation of net taxation data, and to the valuation system used for expressing the monetary value of input-output transactions have deserved special attention. Since the adoption of ESA95 conventions, input-output transactions have been preferably valued at basic prices, which impose additional difficulties on modellers interested in computing applied general equilibrium models. This paper addresses these difficulties by developing a procedure that allows SAM-builders to change the valuation system of input-output transactions conveniently. In addition, this procedure produces new data related to net taxation information.

Smart Planning in Iowa - A Guide to Principles, Strategies and Policy Tools

This guide was created to aid communities in the process of smart planning and is organized around the 10 Smart Planning Principles signed into Iowa law in 2010. A general description of the concept, strategies for encouraging use, policy tools for implementation, and a current Iowa example are presented for each Principle. In addition, a brief list of resources is provided to help local governments, community organizations and citizen planners find information and ideas on community involvement and incorporation of smart planning concepts in every day decisions.

Safer Construction and Maintenance Safer Construction and Maintenance Practices to Minimize Potential Liability by Counties from Accidents, September 1979

Tort claims resulting from alleged highway defects have introduced an additional element in the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of highways. A survey of county governments in Iowa was undertaken in order to quantify the magnitude and determine the nature of this problem. This survey included the use of mailed questionnaires and personal interviews with County Engineers. Highway-related claims filed against counties in Iowa amounted to about $52,000,000 during the period 1973 through 1978. Over $30,000,000 in claims was pending at the end of 1978. Settlements of judgments were made at a cost of 12.2% of the amount claimed for those claims that had been disposed of, not including costs for handling claims, attorney fees, or court costs. There was no clear time trend in the amount of claims for the six-year period surveyed, although the amount claimed in 1978 was about double the average for the preceding five years. Problems that resulted in claims for damages from counties have generally related to alleged omissions in the use of traffic control devices or defects, often temporary, resulting from alleged inadequacies in highway maintenance. The absence of stop signs or warning signs often has been the central issue in a highway-related tort claim. Maintenance problems most frequently alleged have included inadequate shoulders, surface roughness, ice o? snow conditions, and loose gravel. The variation in the occurrence of tort claims among 85 counties in Iowa could not be related to any of the explanatory variables that were tested. Claims appeared to have occurred randomly. However, using data from a sub sample of 11 counties, a significant relationship was shown probably to exist between the amount of tort claims and the extensiveness of use of warning signs on the respective county road systems. Although there was no indication in any county that their use of warning signs did not conform with provisions of the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (Federal Highway Administration, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1978), many more warning signs were used in some counties than would be required to satisfy this minimum requirement. Sign vandalism reportedly is a problem in all counties. The threat of vandalism and the added costs incurred thereby have tended to inhibit more extensive use of traffic control devices. It also should be noted that there is no indication from this research of a correlation between the intensiveness of sign usage and highway safety. All highway maintenance activities introduce some extraordinary hazard for motorists. Generally effective methodologies have evolved for use on county road systems for routine maintenance activities, procedures that tend to reduce the hazard to practical and reasonably acceptable levels. Blading of loose-surfaced roads is an example of such a routine maintenance activity. Alternative patterns for blading that were investigated as part of this research offered no improvements in safety when compared with the method in current use and introduced a significant additional cost that was unacceptable, given the existing limitations in resources available for county roads.