Are functional and genetic components of platelets linked to coronary artery disease: A case-control study

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a multifactorial disease process involving behavioral, inflammatory, clinical, thrombotic, and genetic components. Previous epidemiologic studies focused on identifying behavioral and demographic risk factors of CAD, but none focused on platelets. Current platelet literature lacks the known effects of platelet function and platelet receptor polymorphisms on CAD. This case-control analysis addressed these issues by analyzing data collected for a previous study. Cases were individuals who had undergone CABG and thus had been diagnosed with CAD, while the controls were volunteers presumed to be CAD free. The platelet function variables analyzed included fibrinogen Von Willebrand Factor activity (VWF), shear-induced platelet aggregation (SIPA), sCD40L, and mean platelet volume; and the platelet polymorphisms studied included PIA, α2 807, Ko, Kozak, and VNTR. Univariate analysis found fibrinogen, VWF, SIPA, and PIA to be independent risk factors of CAD. Logistic regression was used to build a predictive model for CAD using the platelet function and platelet polymorphism data adjusted for age, sex, race, and current smoking status. A model containing only platelet polymorphisms and their respective receptor densities, found polymorphisms within GPIbα to be associated with CAD, yielding an 86% (95% C.I. 0.97–3.55) increased risk with the presence of at least 1 polymorphism in Ko, Kozak, or VNTR. Another model included both platelet function and platelet polymorphism data. Fibrinogen, the receptor density of GPIbα, and the polymorphism in GPIa-IIa (α2 807) were all associated with CAD with odds ratios of 1.10, 1.04, and 2.30 for fibrinogen (10mg/dl increase), GPIbα receptors (1 MFI increase), and GPIa-IIa, respectively. In addition, risk estimates and 99% confidence intervals adjusted for race were calculated to determine if the presence of a platelet receptor polymorphism was associated with CAD. The results were as follows: PIA (1.64, 0.74–3.65); α2 807 (1.35, 0.77–2.37); Ko (1.71, 0.70–4.16); Kozak (1.17, 0.54–2.52); and VNTR (1.24, 0.52–2.91). Although not statistically significant, all platelet polymorphisms were associated with an increased risk for CAD. These exploratory findings indicate that platelets do appear to have a role in atherosclerosis and that anti-platelet drugs targeting GPI-IIa and GPIbα may be better treatment candidates for individuals with CAD. ^

Inland Wetland Definitions

This work is the result of a year-long study of the definitions of inland wetlands in which definitions from geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, pedology, biology, systems ecology, sociology, economics, political sciences, public health and law were considered. Of these, geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, biology, systems ecology and economics are discussed in detail in this report and used in writing a final theoretical (ideal) definition of inland wetlands for the glaciated northeastern United States. A proposed legal definition for Connecticut is also offered with descriptions and explanations of terms.

Molecular markers of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and epidemiologic risk factors for squamous intraepithelial lesions (SIL) of the cervix

Infection with certain types of HPV is a necessary event in the development of cervical carcinoma; however, not all women who become infected will progress. While much is known about the molecular influence of HPV E6 and E7 proteins on the malignant transformation, little is known about the additional factors needed to drive the process. Currently, conventional cervical screening is insufficient at identifying women who are likely to progress from premalignant lesions to carcinoma. Aneuploidy and chromatin texture from image cytometry have been suggested as quantitative measures of nuclear damage in premalignant lesions and cancer, and traditional epidemiologic studies have identified potential factors to aid in the discrimination of those lesions likely to progress. ^ In the current study, real-time PCR was used to quantitate mRNA expression of the E7 gene in women exhibiting normal epithelium, LSIL, and HSIL. Quantitative cytometry was used to gather information about the DNA index and chromatin features of cells from the same women. Logistic regression modeling was used to establish predictor variables for histologic grade based on the traditional epidemiologic risk factors and molecular markers. ^ Prevalence of mRNA transcripts was lower among women with normal histology (27%) than for women with LSIL (40%) and HSIL (37%) with mean levels ranging from 2.0 to 4.2. The transcriptional activity of HPV 18 was higher than that of HPV 16 and increased with increasing level of dysplasia, reinforcing the more aggressive nature of HPV 18. DNA index and mRNA level increased with increasing histological grade. Chromatin score was not correlated with histology but was higher for HPV 18 samples and those with both HPV 18 and HPV 16. However, chromatin score and DNA index were not correlated with mRNA levels. The most predictive variables in the regression modeling were mRNA level, DNA index, parity, and age, and the ROC curves for LSIL and HSIL indicated excellent discrimination. ^ Real-time PCR of viral transcripts could provide a more efficient method to analyze the oncogenic potential within cells from cervical swabs. Epidemiological modeling of malignant progression in the cervix should include molecular markers, as well as the traditional epidemiological risk factors. ^

Nonlinear tests for genetic studies of complex disease

Linkage and association studies are major analytical tools to search for susceptibility genes for complex diseases. With the availability of large collection of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and the rapid progresses for high throughput genotyping technologies, together with the ambitious goals of the International HapMap Project, genetic markers covering the whole genome will be available for genome-wide linkage and association studies. In order not to inflate the type I error rate in performing genome-wide linkage and association studies, multiple adjustment for the significant level for each independent linkage and/or association test is required, and this has led to the suggestion of genome-wide significant cut-off as low as 5 × 10 −7. Almost no linkage and/or association study can meet such a stringent threshold by the standard statistical methods. Developing new statistics with high power is urgently needed to tackle this problem. This dissertation proposes and explores a class of novel test statistics that can be used in both population-based and family-based genetic data by employing a completely new strategy, which uses nonlinear transformation of the sample means to construct test statistics for linkage and association studies. Extensive simulation studies are used to illustrate the properties of the nonlinear test statistics. Power calculations are performed using both analytical and empirical methods. Finally, real data sets are analyzed with the nonlinear test statistics. Results show that the nonlinear test statistics have correct type I error rates, and most of the studied nonlinear test statistics have higher power than the standard chi-square test. This dissertation introduces a new idea to design novel test statistics with high power and might open new ways to mapping susceptibility genes for complex diseases. ^

Insights into the biology of lymphatic metastasis

Recent data suggest that the generation of new lymphatic vessels (i.e. lymphangiogenesis) may be a rate-limiting step in the dissemination of tumor cells to regional lymph nodes. However, efforts to study the cellular and molecular interactions that take place between tumor cells and lymphatic endothelial cells have been limited due to a lack of lymphatic endothelial cell lines available for study. ^ I have used a microsurgical approach to establish conditionally immortalized lymphatic endothelial cell lines from the afferent mesenteric lymphatic vessels of mice. Characterization of lymphatic endothelial cells, and tumor-associated lymphatic vessels revealed high expression levels of VCAM-1, which is known to facilitate adhesion of some tumor cells to vascular endothelial cells. Further investigation revealed that murine melanoma cells selected for high expression of α4, a counter-receptor for VCAM-1, demonstrated enhanced adhesion to lymphatic endothelial cells in vitro, and increased tumorigenicity and lymphatic metastasis in vivo, despite similar lymphatic vessel numbers. ^ Next, I examined the effects of growth factors that regulate lymphangiogenesis, and report that several growth factors are capable of activating survival and proliferation pathways of lymphatic endothelial cells. The dual protein tyrosine kinase inhibitor AEE788 (EGFR and VEGFR-2) inhibited the activation of Akt and MAPK in lymphatic endothelial cells responding to multiple growth factors. Moreover, oral treatment of mice with AEE788 decreased lymphatic vessel density and production of lymphatic metastasis by human colon cancer cells growing in the cecum of nude mice. ^ In the last set of experiments, I investigated the surgical management of lymphatic metastasis using a novel model of sentinel lymphadenectomy in live mice bearing subcutaneous B16-BL6 melanoma. The data demonstrate that this procedure when combined with wide excision of the primary melanoma, significantly enhanced survival of syngeneic C57BL/6 mice. ^ Collectively, these results indicate that the production of lymphatic metastasis depends on lymphangiogenesis, tumor cell adhesion to lymphatic endothelial cells, and proliferation of tumor cells in lymph nodes. Thus, lymphatic metastasis is a multi-step, complex, and active process that depends upon multiple interactions between tumor cells and tumor associated lymphatic endothelial cells. ^

Investigation of the molecular mechanisms of endometrial hyperplasia

While there is considerable information on the molecular aberrations associated with the development of endometrial cancer, very little is known of changes in gene expression associated with its antecedent premalignant condition, endometrial hyperplasia. In order to address this, we have compared the level of expression of components of the IGF-I signaling pathway in human endometrial hyperplasia to their level of expression in both the normal pre-menopausal endometrium and endometrial carcinoma. We have also characterized the molecular characteristics of endometrial hyperplasia as it occurs in a murine model of hormone-dependent tumorigenesis of the female reproductive tract. ^ There was a significant and selective increase in the expression of the IGF-I Receptor (IGF-IR) in both human hyperplasia and carcinoma as compared to the normal endometrium. The receptor was also activated, as judged by increased tyrosine phosphorylation. In addition, in hyperplasia and carcinoma there is activation of the downstream component Akt. The expression of the PTEN tumor suppressor is decreased in a subset of subjects with hyperplasia and in all of the carcinomas. The simultaneous loss of PTEN expression and increased IGF-IR activation in the hyperplastic endometrium was associated with an increased incidence of endometrial carcinoma elsewhere within the uterus. In the rodent hyperplasia, there was a significant increase in the expression and activation of Akt that appears to be attributable to a marked increase in the expression of IGF-II. ^ Our studies have demonstrated the pathologic proliferation of both the human and rodent endometrium is linked to a marked activation of the Akt pathway. However the cause of this dysregulation is different in the human disease and the animal model. In rodents, hyperplasia is linked to increased expression of one of the ligands of the IGF-IR, IGF-II. In humans the IGF-I receptor itself is upregulated and activated. Additional activation of the Akt pathway via the suppression of PTEN activity, results in conditions that are associated with the marked increase in the probability of developing endometrial cancer. Our data suggests that increased activity of the IGF-I pathway plays the key role in the hyperproliferative state characteristic of endometrial hyperplasia and cancer.^

Metastatic lung cancer in a new mouse model inheriting p53 and latent K-ras mutations

Lung cancer is a devastating disease with very poor prognosis. The design of better treatments for patients would be greatly aided by mouse models that closely resemble the human disease. The most common type of human lung cancer is adenocarcinoma with frequent metastasis. Unfortunately, current models for this tumor are inadequate due to the absence of metastasis. Based on the molecular findings in human lung cancer and metastatic potential of osteosarcomas in mutant p53 mouse models, I hypothesized that mice with both K-ras and p53 missense mutations might develop metastatic lung adenocarcinomas. Therefore, I incorporated both K-rasLA1 and p53RI72HΔg alleles into mouse lung cells to establish a more faithful model for human lung adenocarcinoma and for translational and mechanistic studies. Mice with both mutations ( K-rasLA1/+ p53R172HΔg/+) developed advanced lung adenocarcinomas with similar histopathology to human tumors. These lung adenocarcinomas were highly aggressive and metastasized to multiple intrathoracic and extrathoracic sites in a pattern similar to that seen in lung cancer patients. This mouse model also showed gender differences in cancer related death and developed pleural mesotheliomas in 23.2% of them. In a preclinical study, the new drug Erlotinib (Tarceva) decreased the number and size of lung lesions in this model. These data demonstrate that this mouse model most closely mimics human metastatic lung adenocarcinoma and provides an invaluable system for translational studies. ^ To screen for important genes for metastasis, gene expression profiles of primary lung adenocarcinomas and metastases were analyzed. Microarray data showed that these two groups were segregated in gene expression and had 79 highly differentially expressed genes (more than 2.5 fold changes and p<0.001). Microarray data of Bub1b, Vimentin and CCAM1 were validated in tumors by quantitative real-time PCR (QPCR). Bub1b , a mitotic checkpoint gene, was overexpressed in metastases and this correlated with more chromosomal abnormalities in metastatic cells. Vimentin, a marker of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), was also highly expressed in metastases. Interestingly, Twist, a key EMT inducer, was also highly upregulated in metastases by QPCR, and this significantly correlated with the overexpression of Vimentin in the same tumors. These data suggest EMT occurs in lung adenocarcinomas and is a key mechanism for the development of metastasis in K-ras LA1/+ p53R172HΔg/+ mice. Thus, this mouse model provides a unique system to further probe the molecular basis of metastatic lung cancer.^

An ecologic comparison study of the impact of economic disadvantage on Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills performance, graduation rates, and readiness for higher education for students attending public and charter schools in Texas from 2004 to 2006

Purpose. No Child Left Behind aimed to "improve the academic achievement of the disadvantaged." The primary research question considered how academic achievement of those from economic disadvantage compared to those not from disadvantage? ^ Economically disadvantaged students can potentially have added academic disadvantage. Research shows low academic achievement can potentially result in drug abuse, youth violence, and teen pregnancy. ^ Methods. To compare the student populations, measures included TAKS results and academic indicator data collected by the Texas Education Agency. ^ Results. T-test analyses showed a significant difference between the economically and non-economically disadvantaged student populations in meeting the TAKS passing standard, graduation, and preparation for higher education.^ Conclusions. The achievement gap between students remained as indicated by the Texas testing program. More research and time are needed to observe if the desired impact on those from economic disadvantage will be reflected by academic achievement data.^

Drinking water quality perception along the U.S.-Mexico border

Drinking water-related exposures within populations living in the United States-Mexico border region, particularly among Hispanics, is an area that is largely unknown. Specifically, perceptions that may affect water source selection is an issue that has not been fully addressed. This study evaluates drinking water quality perceptions in a mostly Hispanic community living along the United States-Mexico border, a community also facing water scarcity issues. Using a survey that was administered during two seasons (winter and summer), data were collected from a total of 608 participants, of which 303 were living in the United States and 305 in Mexico. A (random) convenience sampling technique was used to select households and those interviewed were over 18 years of age. Statistically significant differences were observed involving country of residence (p=0.002). Specifically, those living in Mexico reported a higher use of bottled water than those living in the United States. Perception factors, especially taste, were cited as main reasons for not selecting unfiltered tap water as a primary drinking water source. Understanding what influences drinking water source preference can aid in the development of risk communication strategies regarding water quality. ^

Modifier genes and susceptibility to colorectal cancer in individuals with Lynch syndrome

Lynch syndrome, is caused by inherited germ-line mutations in the DNA mismatch repair genes resulting in cancers at an early age, predominantly colorectal (CRC) and endometrial cancers. Though the median age at onset for CRC is about 45 years, disease penetrance varies suggesting that cancer susceptibility may be modified by environmental or other low-penetrance genes. Genetic variation due to polymorphisms in genes encoding metabolic enzymes can influence carcinogenesis by alterations in the expression and activity level of the enzymes. Variation in MTHFR, an important folate metabolizing enzyme can affect DNA methylation and DNA synthesis and variation in xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes can affect the metabolism and clearance of carcinogens, thus modifying cancer risk. ^ This study examined a retrospective cohort of 257 individuals with Lynch syndrome, for polymorphisms in genes encoding xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes-- CYP1A1 (I462V and MspI), EPHX1 (H139R and Y113H), GSTP1 (I105V and A114V), GSTM1 and GSTT1 (deletions) and folate metabolizing enzyme--MTHFR (C677T and A1298C). In addition, a series of 786 cases of sporadic CRC were genotyped for CYP1A1 I462V and EPHX1 Y113H to assess gene-gene interaction and gene-environment interaction with smoking in a case-only analysis. ^ Prominent findings of this study were that the presence of an MTHFR C677T variant allele was associated with a 4 year later age at onset for CRC on average and a reduced age-associated risk for developing CRC (Hazard ratio: 0.55; 95% confidence interval: 0.36–0.85) compared to the absence of any variant allele in individuals with Lynch syndrome. Similarly, Lynch syndrome individuals heterozygous for CYP1A1 I462V A>G polymorphism developed CRC an average of 4 years earlier and were at a 78% increased age-associated risk (Hazard ratio for AG relative to AA: 1.78; 95% confidence interval: 1.16-2.74) than those with the homozygous wild-type genotype. Therefore these two polymorphisms may be additional susceptibility factors for CRC in Lynch syndrome. In the case-only analysis, evidence of gene-gene interaction was seen between CYP1A1 I462V and EPHX1 Y113H and between EPHX1 Y113H and smoking suggesting that genetic and environmental factors may interact to increase sporadic CRC risk. Implications of these findings are the ability to identify subsets of high-risk individuals for targeted prevention and intervention. ^

Investigator/IRB-led community communication in genetic research: A descriptive feasibility pilot study

This pilot study, conducted in the Houston, TX, area, established a structured dialogue among a university Institutional Review Board, its researchers, and its local community members (i.e. pool of potential research participants) for the purpose of further educating all three parties about genetic research and community concerns related to such research. An IRB-designed educational presentation aimed at assisting potential subjects in making an informed decision to participate in genetic research was provided to four community groups (n=54); this presentation also included a current example of genetic research being conducted in the community as explained by the researcher, and a question-and-answer session designed to assist the IRB and the researcher in understanding the community's concerns about genetic research. Comparisons of pre- and post- presentation community questionnaires indicate that the joint presentation was effective in increasing community knowledge about genetic research, most notably related to the risks and benefits of this research to the individual, as well as the understanding that protections are in place for research participants. While researchers are optimistic about the idea of a collaborative effort with the IRB and the community, the feasibility of such a program and the benefit to the participating researchers remain unclear; additional research is necessary to establish the most effective method of communication for all groups involved, as well as to obtain statistically significant results with regard to race/ethnicity, gender, and education levels of community participants. ^

Outcome-based adaptive randomization for binary data in clinical trials---Compare and contrast

Monte Carlo simulation has been conducted to investigate parameter estimation and hypothesis testing in some well known adaptive randomization procedures. The four urn models studied are Randomized Play-the-Winner (RPW), Randomized Pôlya Urn (RPU), Birth and Death Urn with Immigration (BDUI), and Drop-the-Loses Urn (DL). Two sequential estimation methods, the sequential maximum likelihood estimation (SMLE) and the doubly adaptive biased coin design (DABC), are simulated at three optimal allocation targets that minimize the expected number of failures under the assumption of constant variance of simple difference (RSIHR), relative risk (ORR), and odds ratio (OOR) respectively. Log likelihood ratio test and three Wald-type tests (simple difference, log of relative risk, log of odds ratio) are compared in different adaptive procedures. ^ Simulation results indicates that although RPW is slightly better in assigning more patients to the superior treatment, the DL method is considerably less variable and the test statistics have better normality. When compared with SMLE, DABC has slightly higher overall response rate with lower variance, but has larger bias and variance in parameter estimation. Additionally, the test statistics in SMLE have better normality and lower type I error rate, and the power of hypothesis testing is more comparable with the equal randomization. Usually, RSIHR has the highest power among the 3 optimal allocation ratios. However, the ORR allocation has better power and lower type I error rate when the log of relative risk is the test statistics. The number of expected failures in ORR is smaller than RSIHR. It is also shown that the simple difference of response rates has the worst normality among all 4 test statistics. The power of hypothesis test is always inflated when simple difference is used. On the other hand, the normality of the log likelihood ratio test statistics is robust against the change of adaptive randomization procedures. ^

Selective elimination of cancer cells by PEITC: Biological basis and therapeutic implications

Toxic side effect is a major problem in cancer chemotherapy. Therefore, identification and development of new agents that can selectively remove cancer with low toxicity to normal cells would have significant clinical impact. Compared to normal cells, cancer cells are under intrinsic stress with elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. My research aimed to exploit this biochemical alteration as a novel basis to develop a selective agent. The goal of my dissertation research was to test the hypothesis that since most cancer cells are under higher oxidative stress than normal cells, compounds which modulate oxidative stress such as pphenylethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) may preferentially impact cancer cells through ROS-mediated mechanisms and have implications in cancer therapeutics. Using H-RasV1-transformed ovarian cells and their immortalized non-tumorigenic counterparts, I discovered that the transformed cells exhibited increased ROS generation and this intrinsic stress rendered them highly dependent on glutathione antioxidant system to maintain redox balance. Abolishing this system by PEITC through depletion of glutathione and inhibition of GPX activity led to a preferential ROS increase in the transformed cells. The severe ROS accumulation caused oxidative damage to the mitochondria membranes and impaired the membrane integrity leading to massive cell death. In contrast, PEITC caused only a modest increase of ROS insufficient to cause significant cell death in non-transformed cells. Promisingly, PEITC exhibited anticancer activity in vivo by prolonging survival of mice bearing the Ras-transformed ovarian xenograft with minimal toxic side effect. Further study in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cells isolated from the blood samples of CLL patients revealed that PEITC not only exhibits promising selectivity against primary CLL cells compared to normal lymphocytes, but it is also effective in removing CLL cells resistant to standard anti-cancer drug Fludarabine. In conclusion, the data implicate that intrinsic oxidative stress in cancer cells could serve as a biochemical basis to develop selective novel anticancer agents such as PEITC, with significant therapeutic implications. ^

Persisting abdominal symptoms after travelers' diarrhea: Is there a genetic predisposition?

Functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) are defined as ailments of the mid or lower gastrointestinal tract which are not attributable to any discernable anatomic or biochemical defects.1 FGIDs include functional bowel disorders, also known as persisting abdominal symptoms (PAS). Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is one of the most common illnesses classified under PAS.2,3 This is the first prospective study that looks at the etiology and pathogenesis of post-infectious PAS in the context of environmental exposure and genetic susceptibility in a cohort of US travelers to Mexico. Our objective was to identify infectious, genetic and environmental factors that predispose to post infectious PAS. ^ Methods. This is a secondary data analysis of a prospective study on a cohort of 704 healthy North American tourists to Cuernavaca, Morelos and Guadalajara, Jalisco in Mexico. The subjects at risk for Travelers' diarrhea were assessed for chronic abdominal symptoms on enrollment and six months after the return to the US. ^ Outcomes. PAS was defined as disturbances of mid and lower gastrointestinal system without any known pathological or radiological abnormalities, or infectious, or metabolic causes. It refers to functional bowel disease, category C of functional gastrointestinal diseases as defined by the Rome II criterion. PAS was sub classified into Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and functional abdominal disease (FAD). ^ IBS is defined as recurrent abdominal pain or discomfort present at least 25% and associated with improvement with defecation, change in frequency and form of stool. FAD encompasses other abdominal symptoms of chronic nature that do not meet the criteria for IBS. It includes functional diarrhea, functional constipation, functional bloating: and unspecified bowel symptoms. ^ Results. Among the 704 travelers studied, there were 202 cases of PAS. The PAS cases included 175 cases of FAD and 27 cases of IBS. PAS was more frequent among subjects who developed traveler's diarrhea in Mexico compared to travelers who remained healthy during the short term visit to Mexico (52 vs. 38; OR = 1.8; CI, 1.3–2.5, P < 0.001). A statistically significant difference was noted in the mean age of subjects with PAS compared to healthy controls (28 vs. 34 yrs; OR = 0.97, CI, 0.95–0.98; P < 0.001). Travelers who experienced multiple episodes, a later onset of diarrhea in Mexico and passed greater numbers of unformed stools were more likely to be identified in PAS group at six months. Participants who developed TD caused by enterotoxigenic E.coli in Mexico showed a 2.6 times higher risk of developing FAD (P = 0.003). Infection with Providencia ssp. also demonstrated a greater risk to developing PAS. Subjects who sought treatment for diarrhea while in Mexico also displayed a significantly lower frequency of IBS at six months follow up (OR = 0.30; CI, 0.10–0.80; P = 0.02). ^ Forty six SNPs belonging to 14 genes were studied. Seven SNPs were associated with PAS at 6 months. These included four SNPs from the Caspase Recruitment Domain-Containing Protein 15 gene (CARD15), two SNPs from Surfactant Pulmonary-Associated Protein D gene (SFTPD) and one from Decay-Accelerating Factor For Complement gene (CD55). A genetic risk score (GRS) was composed based on the 7 SNPs that showed significant association with PAS. A 20% greater risk for PAS was noted for every unit increase in GRS. The risk increased by 30% for IBS. The mean GRS was high for IBS (2.2) and PAS (1.1) compared to healthy controls (0.51). These data suggests a role for these genetic polymorphisms in defining the susceptibility to PAS. ^ Conclusions. The study allows us to identify individuals at risk for developing post infectious IBS (PI-IBS) and persisting abdominal symptoms after an episode of TD. The observations in this study will be of use in developing measures to prevent and treat post-infectious irritable bowel syndrome among travelers including pre-travel counseling, the use of vaccines, antibiotic prophylaxis or the initiation of early antimicrobial therapy. This study also provides insights into the pathogenesis of post infectious PAS and IBS. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)^

NRAS and BRAF mutations in primary cutaneous melanoma: A comparison of mutation rates between radial and vertical growth phases in individual tumors

Primary cutaneous melanoma is a cancer arising from melanocytes in the skin. In recent decades the incidence of this malignancy has increased significantly. Mortality rates are high for patients with tumors measuring over a few millimeters in thickness. Response rates to conventional radiation and chemotherapy are very low in patients with metastatic melanoma. New therapies targeting melanoma’s aberrant cell signaling pathways such as the MAP Kinase pathway are being developed. Mutations of NRAS and BRAF genes are quite common in cutaneous melanoma and lead to constitutive activation of the MAP Kinase pathway. This study tests the hypothesis that NRAS and BRAF mutations increase as a tumor progresses from the noninvasive radial growth phase (RGP) to the invasive vertical growth phase (VGP). Laser capture microdissection was used to obtain separate, pure tumor DNA samples from the RGP and VGP of thirty primary cutaneous melanomas. PCR was used to amplify NRAS exon 2 and BRAF exon 15 tumor DNA. The amplified DNA was sequenced and analyzed for mutations. An overall mutation rate of 74% was obtained for the twenty-three melanomas in which there were complete sequence results. With the exception of one melanoma NRAS and BRAF mutations were mutually exclusive. All seven NRAS exon 2 mutations involved codon 61. Three of these melanomas had mutations in both the RGP and VGP. The remaining four tumors were wild type for NRAS exon 2 in the RGP but mutated in the VGP. Of the fifteen BRAF exon 15 mutated melanomas all but one involved codon 600. Twelve of the fifteen BRAF exon 15 mutations were the T1799A type. Nine of the fifteen BRAF mutated tumors had the same mutation in both the RGP and VGP. Five of fifteen melanomas had wild type RGP DNA and BRAF exon 15 mutated VGP DNA. A single melanoma had BRAF exon 15 mutated DNA in the RGP and wild type DNA in the VGP. Overall, these results suggest a trend toward the acquisition of NRAS and BRAF mutations as cutaneous melanomas change from a noninvasive to an invasive, potentially deadly cancer.^