The impact of big-boxes on local retail : What happens when IKEA comes to town?

The development of large discount retailers, or big-boxes as they are sometimes referred to, are often subject to heated debate and their entry on a market is greeted with either great enthusiasm or dread. For instance, the world’s largest retailer Wal-Mart (Forbes 2014) has a number of anti- and pro-groups dedicated to its being and the event of a Wal-Mart entry tends to be met with protests and campaigns (Decamme 2013) but also welcomed by, for instance, consumers (Davis & DeBonis 2013). Also in Sweden, the entry of a big box is a hot topic and before IKEA’s opening i Borlänge 2013, the first in Sweden in more than five years, great expectations were mixed with worry (Västerbottens-Kuriren 2011).The presence of large scale discount retailers is not, however, a novel phenomenon but a part of a long-term change in retailing that has taken place globally over the past couple of decades (Taylor & Smalling, 2005). As noted by Dawson (2006), the trend in Europe has over the past few decades gone towards an increasing concentration of large firms along with a decrease of smaller firms.This trend is also detectable in the Swedish retail industry. Over the past decade, the retailing industry in Sweden has increased by around 190 Billion SEK, and its share of GDP has risen from 2,7% to 2,9%, while the number of employees have increased from 200 000 to 250 000 (HUI 2013). This growth, however, has not been distributed evenly but rather it has been oriented mainly towards out-of-town retail clusters. Parallel to this development, the number of large retailers has risen at the expense of market shares of smaller independent firms (Rämme et al 2010). Thereby, the presence of large scale retailers is simply part of a changing retail landscape.The effects of this development, where large scale retailing agents relocate shopping to out-of-town shopping areas, have been heavily debated. On the one hand, the big-boxes are accused of displacing independent small retail businesses in the city-centers and the residential areas, resulting in, to some extent, reduced employment opportunities and less availability for the consumers - especially the elderly (Ljungberg et al 2006). In addition, as access to shopping now tends to require some sort of a motorized vehicle, environmental aspects to the discussion have emerged. Ultimately these types of concerns have resulted in calls for regulations against this development (Olsson 2010). On the other hand, the proponents of the new shopping landscape argue that this evolution implies productivity gains, the benefits of lower prices and an increased variety of products (Maican & Orth 2012). Moreover it is argued that it leads to, for instance, better services (such as longer opening hours) and a creative destruction transformation pressure on retailers, which brings about a renewal of city-centerIIretail and services, increasing their attractivity (Bergström 2010). The belief in benefits of a big box entry can be exemplified by the attractivity of IKEA, and the fact that municipalities are prepared to commit to expenses amounting up to hundreds of millions in order to attract the entry of this big-box. Borlänge municipality, for instance, agreed to expenses of about 350 million SEK in order to secure the entry of IKEA, which opened in 2013 (Blomgren 2009).Against this backdrop, the overall effects of large discount retailers become important: Are the economic benefits enough to warrant subsidies or are there, on the contrary, some very compelling grounds for regulations against these types of establishments? In other words; how is overall retail in a region where a store like IKEA enters affected? And how are local retail firms affected?In order to answer these questions, the purpose of this thesis is to study how entry of a big-box retailer affects the entry region. The object of this study is IKEA - one of the world’s largest retailers, with 345 stores, active in over 40 countries and with profits of about 3.3 billion (IKEA 2013; IKEA 2014). By studying the effects of IKEA-entry, both on an aggregated level and on firm level, this thesis intends to find indications of how large discount retail establishments in general can be expected to affect the economic development both in a region overall, but also on the local firm level, something which is of interest to both policymakers as well as the retailing industry in general.The first paper examines the effects of IKEA on retail revenues and employment in the municipalities that IKEA chose to enter between 2000 and 2011; Gothenburg, Haparanda, Kalmar and Karlstad. By means of a matching method we first identify non-entry municipalities that have a similar probability of IKEA entry as the true entry municipalities. Then, using these non-entry municipalities as a control group, the causal effects of IKEA entry can be estimated using a treatment-control approach. We also extend the analysis to examine the spatial impact of IKEA by estimating the effects on retail in neighboring municipalities. It is found that a new IKEA store increases revenues in durable goods trade with 20% in the entry municipality and the number of employees with 17%. Only small, and in most cases statistically insignificant, negative effects were found in neighboring municipalities.It appears that there is a positive net effect on durables retail sales and employment in the entry municipality. However, the analysis is based on data on an aggregated municipality level and thereby it remains unclear if and how the effects vary within the entry municipalities. In addition, the data used in the first study includes the sales and employment of IKEA itself, which could account for the majority of the increases in employment and retail. Thereby the potential spillover effects on incumbent retailers in the entry municipalities cannot be discerned in the first study.IIITo examine effects of IKEA entry on incumbent retail firms, the second paper in this thesis analyses how IKEA entry affects the revenues and employment of local retail firms in three municipalities; Haparanda, Kalmar and Karlstad, which experienced entry by IKEA between 2000 and 2010. In this second study, we exclude Gothenburg due to the fact that big-box entry appears to have weaker effects in metropolitan areas (as indicated by Artz & Stone 2006). By excluding Gothenburg we aim to reduce the geographical heterogeneity in our study. We obtain control municipalities that are as similar as possible to the three entry municipalities using the same method as in the previous study, but including a slightly different set of variables in the selection equation. Using similar retail firms in the control municipalities as our comparison group, we estimate the impact of IKEA entry on revenues and employment for retail firms located at varying distances from the IKEA entry site.The results generated in this study imply that entry by IKEA increases revenues in incumbent retail firms by, on average, 11% in the entry municipalities. In addition, we do not find any significant impact on retail revenues in the city centers of the entry municipalities. However, we do find that retail firms within 1 km of the IKEA experience increases in revenues of about 26%, which indicates large spillover effects in the area nearby the entry site. As expected, this impact decreases as we expand the buffer zone: firms located between 0-2 km experiences a 14% increase and firms in 2-5 km experiences an increase of 10%. We do not find any significant impacts on retail employment.

Lighting and violent crimes: evaluating the effect of an electrification policy in rural Brazil on violent crime reduction

This paper estimates the effect of lighting on violent crime reduction. We explore an electrification program (LUZ PARA TODOS or Light for All - LPT) adopted by the federal government to expand electrification to rural areas in all Brazilian municipalities in the 2000s as an exogenous source of variation in electrification expansion. Our instrumental variable results show a reduction in homicide rates (approximately five homicides per 100,000 inhabitants) on rural roads/urban streets when a municipality moved from no access to full coverage of electricity between 2000 and 2010. These findings are even more significant in the northern and northeastern regions of Brazil, where rates of electrification are lower than those of the rest of the country and, thus, where the program is concentrated. In the north (northeast), the number of violent deaths on the streets per 100,000 inhabitants decreased by 48.12 (13.43). This moved a municipality at the 99th percentile (75th) to the median (zero) of the crime distribution of municipalities. Finally, we do not find effects on violent deaths in households and at other locations. Because we use an IV strategy by exploring the LPT program eligibility criteria, we can interpret the results as the estimated impact of the program on those experiencing an increase in electricity coverage due to their program eligibility. Thus, the results represent local average treatment effects of lighting on homicides.

Betting on winner: the effect of local elections on corporate political activity outcomes

How can managers successfully access political rents by way of corporate political strategies (CPA)? Existing research has suggested several endogenous factors that correlate with CPA outcomes. I offer a more robust solution to this problem. Drawing on insights from the perspective of CPA as exchanges between firms and political decision-makers, and from the special interest politics of political economy, I develop and test a causal mechanism that links local elections, legislative bargaining and access to political rents at the national level. I conducted a natural experiment using regression discontinuity design and propensity score matching in municipal elections in Brazil to show that firms enjoy superior access to subsidized financing from the state-owned national development bank (BNDES) when they decide to invest in municipalities whose winning mayoral candidate is coalition-aligned with the national ruler. This effect fades away fades away as the level of competition in the local election decreases. The evidence implies that when managers bet on national coalition-aligned winners in close local elections, they positively affect CPA outcomes. I extend the exchange-based typology of corporate political strategies by offering a novel possibility of targeting voters with financial inducements, which I call a private local development strategy. Finally, these results show that firms exchange their project-execution capabilities for superior access to subsidized financing.

Human resource policies in public education: empirical evidences for Brazil

Esta tese traz três exercícios empíricos sobre questões de recursos humanos em escolas públicas brasileiras, aproveitando-se de uma ampla política implantada na rede estadual de São Paulo. Esta política aumenta os salários para os professores que trabalham em escolas urbanas pobres e sua regra de alocação, baseada em um corte arbitrário em um índice socioeconômico, permite a identificação de impactos causais. Em resumo, os três artigos apontam que políticas de subsídios são capazes de, de fato, manter professores nas escolas mais pobres e este efeito, por sua vez, melhora o desempenho acadêmico dos alunos. Além disso, concluímos também que esta política também reduz o absenteísmo dos professores. No entanto, como consequência do desenho dessa política, não há evidências de que o subsídio melhora o perfil dos professores alocados nessas escolas. O primeiro artigo avalia os impactos dessa política sobre a rotatividade dos professores. Concluímos que a compensação salarial reduziu a taxa de rotatividade em 7,2 pontos percentuais, o que significa uma queda de 15% sobre a média pré-tratamento. Em um modelo em forma reduzida, encontramos também evidências de que esta política pode impactar positivamente o desempenho dos alunos. O segundo artigo analisa os impactos sobre a aprendizagem dos alunos, com foco em três possíveis mecanismos: i) a rotatividade; ii) a qualidade dos professores; iii) o aumento do salário. As estimativas mostram que o único canal através do qual esta política compensatória afeta o desempenho dos alunos é a redução da rotatividade dos professores. Ao reduzir taxa de volume de negócios em um desvio-padrão, a política reduziu a proporção de alunos de baixo desempenho em cerca de meio desvio-padrão. O terceiro artigo avalia como a diferenciação salarial criada por esta política afeta absenteísmo dos professores. Os resultados mostram que, após controlar efeitos fixos de professores e escolas, pagar um salário mais elevado (em média 26% a mais) provoca uma queda de 8-22% nas faltas dos professores. Ausências que não levam a desconto de salário, como por licenças médicas, não respondem à diferenciação salarial e o impacto é maior para os professores que recebem maior incentivo.

Análise de volatilidade, integração de preços e previsibilidade para o mercado brasileiro de camarão

The present paper has the purpose of investigate the dynamics of the volatility structure in the shrimp prices in the Brazilian fish market. Therefore, a description of the initial aspects of the shrimp price series was made. From this information, statistics tests were made and selected univariate models to be price predictors. Then, it was verified the existence of relationship of long-term equilibrium between the Brazilian and American imported shrimp and if, confirmed the relationship, whether or not there is a causal link between these assets, considering that the two countries had presented trade relations over the years. It is presented as an exploratory research of applied nature with quantitative approach. The database was collected through direct contact with the Companhia de Entrepostos e Armazéns Gerais de São Paulo (CEAGESP) and on the official website of American import, National Marine Fisheries Service - National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NMFS- NOAA). The results showed that the great variability in the active price is directly related with the gain and loss of the market agents. The price series presents a strong seasonal and biannual effect. The average structure of price of shrimp in the last 12 years was R$ 11.58 and external factors besides the production and marketing (U.S. antidumping, floods and pathologies) strongly affected the prices. Among the tested models for predicting prices of shrimp, four were selected, which through the prediction methodologies of one step forward of horizon 12, proved to be statistically more robust. It was found that there is weak evidence of long-term equilibrium between the Brazilian and American shrimp, where equivalently, was not found a causal link between them. We concluded that the dynamic pricing of commodity shrimp is strongly influenced by external productive factors and that these phenomena cause seasonal effects in the prices. There is no relationship of long-term stability between the Brazilian and American shrimp prices, but it is known that Brazil imports USA production inputs, which somehow shows some dependence productive. To the market agents, the risk of interferences of the external prices cointegrated to Brazilian is practically inexistent. Through statistical modeling is possible to minimize the risk and uncertainty embedded in the fish market, thus, the sales and marketing strategies for the Brazilian shrimp can be consolidated and widespread

Effect of poultry viscera meal inclusion in broiler diets in different rearing periods on performance, carcass and parts yields

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Effect of intensification on grow out of the Amazon River prawn, Macrobrachium amazonicum

The effects of intensification on growth, survival, productivity, population structure, and distribution of harvested biomass in individual size classes of Macrobrachium amazonicum in semi-intensive culture were evaluated. Postlarvae (0.01 g) were stocked in 12 ponds at densities of 10, 20, 40, and 80/m(2) (three replicates per treatment) and raised for 5.5 mo. Average individual weight significantly decreased and productivity significantly increased as stocking density increased (P < 0.001), while survival was not affected (P > 0.05). Prawn mean weight at harvest ranged from 3.6 (80/m(2)) to 7.0 g (10/m(2)). Average survival ranged from 65.5% (40/m(2)) to 72.8% (20/m(2)), while productivity ranged from 508 (10/m(2)) to 2051 kg/ha (80/m(2)). Harvested biomass showed a clear bimodal distribution in individual size classes indicating the occurrence of heterogeneous growth, which may affect management and market strategies. Harvested biomass of prawns weighing more than 7 g (the best market size) increases for stocking densities up to 40/m(2) and stabilizes between 40 and 80/m(2). Growth reduction was associated with a decreasing frequency and average weight of green claw 1 and green claw 2 male morphotypes and adult females as density increased. Thus, the distribution of male morphotypes and sexually mature females are affected by density-dependent factors. Results suggest that prawn density plays an important role on M. amazonicum grow-out phase, as has been demonstrated for other species of the genus Macrobrachium. M. amazonicum tolerates grow-out intensification and may be raised in both semi-intensive and intensive systems stocked at very high densities yielding high productivity.

Effect of steeping conditions (sulfur dioxide, lactic acid, and temperature) on starch yield, starch quality, and germ quality from the Intermittent Milling and Dynamic Steeping process (IMDS) for a Brazilian corn hybrid

Effect of lactic acid, SO2, temperature, and their interactions were assessed on the dynamic steeping of a Brazilian dent corn (hybrid XL 606) to determine the ideal relationship among these variables to improve the wet-milling process for starch and corn by-products production. A 2x2x3 factorial experimental design was used with SO2 levels of 0.05 and 0.1% (w/v), lactic acid levels of 0 and 0.5% (v/v), and temperatures of 52, 60, and 68degreesC. Starch yield was used as deciding factor to choose the best treatment. Lactic acid added in the steep solution improved the starch yield by an average of 5.6 percentage points. SO2 was more available to break down the structural protein network at 0.1% than at the 0.05% level. Starch-gluten separation was difficult at 68degreesC. The lactic acid and SO2 concentrations and steeping temperatures for better starch recovery were 0.5, 0.1, and 52degreesC, respectively. The Intermittent Milling and Dynamic Steeping (IMDS) process produced, on average, 1.4% more starch than the conventional 36- hr steeping process. Protein in starch, oil content in germ, and germ damage were used as quality factors. Total steep time can be reduced from 36 hr for conventional wet-milling to 8 hr for the IMDS process.

Effects of plant densities and management of purple nutsedge on sugarcane yield and effect of growth stages and main way of herbicides contact and absorption on the control of tubers

Field experiments carried out with Cyperus rotundus L. at low (58-246), medium (318773), and high (675-1198 shoots/m(2)) densities showed sugarcane yield reductions of 13.5, 29.3, and 45.2%, respectively in relation to the control. In the second field experiment, the integration of a mechanic method with two sequences of plowing and disking operations in the dry season, and complementary applications of trifloxysulfuron-sodium + ametrine and sulfentrazone (rainy season) was studied. Average of the chain connected to original shoot showed 92, 95, and 65% of reduction with trifloxysulfuron-sodium + ametrine and surfactant, at the application stages early, preflowering, and full flowering, respectively.

Biofertilizer for control of Guignardia citricarpa, the causal agent of citrus black spot

Biofertilizers generated from the anaerobic and aerobic digestion of cattle manure, known as Bio1 and Bio2, respectively, were studied with regard to their microbial composition and effect on the mycelial growth of Phyllosticta citricarpa, the causal agent of citrus black spot (CBS). Two field experiments were conducted to determine the biofertilizer's potential (Bio1) in controlling CBS (2001/2002 and 2002/2003 crops). It was observed that the greatest number of microorganisms was found in the aerobically produced biofertilizer. Bio2 did not inhibit the mycelial growth of P. citricarpa. Mycelial growth of P. citricarpa was inversely proportional to the Bio1 biofertilizer concentration. In the 2001/2002 cropping season, the Biol effect in controlling CBS was directly proportional to its concentration, at the rate of 0 (healthy fruit), with R-2 = 0.88. Biol had a significant effect in controlling CBS, at a concentration of 10%, during the 2001/2002 cropping season, with DI values of 0.246 and 0.229 for the. 10 and 20% doses, respectively, compared to DI of 0.329 for the control. A directly proportional effect of the biofertilizer concentration on the percentage of fruits with a rating of zero was. also observed in the 2002/2003 cropping season, with R-2 = 0.48. However, even at doses higher than in the preceding cropping season, the biofertilizer was less effective, possibly due to a higher occurrence of the disease. Copper oxychloride and combined applications of copper oxychloride and carbendazim plus mancozeb controlled the disease. The possibility of using the biofertilizer as a protective biofungicide to replace copper oxychloride, especially in organic agriculture, should be explored. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Controle alternativo de Colletotrichum acutatum agente causal da queda prematura dos frutos cítricos

A queda prematura dos frutos cítricos (QPFC), causada por Colletotrichum acutatum, dados os grandes prejuízos que têm causado aos produtores, constitui-se numa doença de grande importância econômica. O controle da doença é feito predominantemente mediante uso de fungicidas, que eleva o custo de produção e afeta negativamente o meio ambiente. Diante disso, este trabalho teve por objetivo buscar um método alternativo de controle da QPFC, mediante o uso de agentes de biocontrole ou de biofertilizantes. Diferentes concentrações de biofertilizantes (originários de duas fontes distintas e denominados de Bio1 e Bio 2); três isolados de Bacillus subtilis (ACB-69; 72 e 77) e três isolados de Trichoderma spp. (ACB-14; 37 e 39) foram testados, isoladamente ou em combinação, sob condições de laboratório, quanto à capacidade inibitória da germinação de conídios de C. acutatum. Estudaram-se, ainda, a produção de metabólitos termoestáveis por B. subtilis e o efeito sobre a germinação do patógeno. Quinze isolados de B. subtilis foram testados quanto à capacidade de prevenir a infecção por C. acutatum em flores destacadas de lima- ácida 'Tahiti' e, no campo, foram instalados dois experimentos, visando a testar ACBs e biofertilizantes no controle da doença. Verificou-se que o isolado ACB-72 (B. subtilis) e ACB-37 (T. pseudokoningii) foram os que mais inibiram a germinação do patógeno. Quanto à produção de metabólitos termoestáveis, ACB-69 e 77 foram os mais eficientes em produzir substâncias antifúngicas, e em quantidades suficientes para inibirem a germinação do patógeno. A mistura dos quatro isolados de Bacillus (ACBs: 69; 72; 77 e AP3) foi o que apresentou maior porcentagem de inibição (73%). Os biofertilizantes (Bio1 e Bio2), em concentrações acima de 10% e, quando em associação com isolados de Trichoderma spp., promoveram maiores inibições na germinação de C. acutatum. em testes com flores destacadas, verificou-se que, onde foram aplicados os ACBs 69; 76; 74 e 77, as porcentagens de pétalas sem sintomas de infecção por C. acutatum foram de 83; 92; 92 e 97%, respectivamente. Mediante avaliações a campo, verificou-se a potencialidade de B. subtilis e de biofertilizantes em controlar a doença.

Influência da temperatura e da luminosidade no desenvolvimento de Guignardia citricarpa, agente causal da mancha preta dos frutos cítricos

O presente trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar sob condições de laboratório, o efeito de temperatura (15, 18, 20, 21, 24, 25, 27, 30, 33 e 35 ± 1 ºC) nas condições escuro, luz contínua e fotoperíodo 12/12 h, na produção de pseudotécios de isolados de Guignardia citricarpa, provenientes de regiões cítricolas dos Estados de São Paulo e Rio de Janeiro. Discos de folhas de limoeiro 'Cravo' (Citrus limonia), de 12 mm de diâmetro, foram autoclavados e depositadas (parte abaxial) na superfície do meio de cultura constituído por ágar-água 2%. Foram colocados quatro discos de folhas por placa onde, de forma conjunta e intercalar aos mesmos, depositaram-se dois discos obtidos de colônias de Phyllosticta citricarpa, com 21 dias de incubação. Foi, também, estudado o efeito da temperatura e do tempo de incubação (2, 8 e 16 h) na germinação dos ascósporos. Após 21 dias de incubação, a ótima temperatura ajustada pela função beta generalizada, para produção de pseudotécios deu-se a 26 e 22,5 a 27,5 °C, sob condição de escuro e de luz, respectivamente. Observou-se também produção de pseudotécios a 27 ºC em fotoperíodo 12/12 h. em estudo complementar foi verificado que, aos 19 dias, a 27 ºC, cerca de 90% dos pseudotécios haviam alcançado a maturidade, com abundante produção de ascósporos. A maior porcentagem de ascósporos germinados foi constatada na temperatura de 24 ºC, após 16 h de incubação. Dentre as vantagens alcançadas, incluem-se a possibilidade (i) da produção massal de ascósporos em curto período de tempo, e (ii) da padronização do inóculo, tanto qualitativa, quanto quantitativa.

Functional response of Telenomus remus Nixon(Hymenoptera, Scelionidae) to Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae) eggs: effect of female age

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

Modeling of average growth curve in Santa Ines sheep using random regression models

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Estrutura genética de populações de Amphobotrys ricini, agente causal do mofo cinzento da mamoneira

The gray mold, causal organism Amphobotrys ricini, is one of the major diseases of castor bean. Difficulties in managing plant disease arises form the limited understanding of the genetic structure of A. ricini, their complexity and variability make it difficult to control. Genetic structure can be used to infer the relative impact of different forces that influence the evolution of pathogen populations, that allow to predict the potencial for pathogen populations to envolve in agricultural ecosystems. Growers protect their crop by applying fungicides, but there aren t fungicides to provide significant control of gray mold of castor bean. The objectives of this work were use RAPD to determine the genetic structure of A. ricini subpopulations in Paraíba and assay the sensitivity of A. ricini isolates to azoxystrobin and carbendazim. To determine the genetic structure of A. ricini subpopulations in Paraíba, 23 isolates were colleted from two different geographic location (subpopulation). These isolates were analysed by RAPD using 22 random decamer primers, purchased from OPERON, produced a total of 80 markers polimorphics. The resulting matrixes were analysed using PopGene version 1.32. Sensitivity to azoxystrobin and carbendazim of 30 isolates, colleted form Paraíba and Alagoas, was estimated based on spore germination and colony growth inhibition. The stock solutions were added toV8 medium after sterilization to produce final concentrations of 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10, and 100 µg/ml of carbendazim and 0, 0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 µg/ml of azoxystrobin. All statistical analyses were performed using SAS to estimate the dose that inhibited fungal growth by 50% (ED50 values). The genetic diversity within subpopulations (Hs=0,271) accounted for 92% of the total genetic diversity (Ht=0,293), while genetic diversity between subpopulations (Gst = 0,075) represented only 7,5%. The estimated number of migrants per generation (NM ) was 6,15. Nei s average gene identity across 80 RAPD loci was 0,9468. Individual ED50 values, for the 30 isolates screened for their sensitivity to azoxystrobin, ranged From a maximum of 0,168 µg/ml to a minimum of 0,0036 µg/ml. The ED50 values for carbendazim varied within the range of 0,026 to 0,316 µg/ml