Protectionism and industrialization: a critical assessment of the Latin American industrialization period

Protectionist policies were considered one of the pivotal features of the import industrialization process in Latin America. In this paper the effects of protectionist policies are assessed in terms of the principal macroeconomic variables, productive structure and external trade composition; also, ECLAC's perspective on the import substitution process is discussed. The main conclusions are that regional protectionist policies were spontaneous, and their effects were limited due to the generalized protection that took place and the government's commitment to price stability.

The effects of derivative use on equity fund performance

Investing in mutual funds has become more popular than ever and the amount of money invested in mutual funds registered in Finland has hit its all-time high. Mutual funds provide a relatively low-cost method for private investors to invest in stock market and achieve diversified portfolios. In finance there is always a tradeoff between risk and return, where higher expected returns can usually be achieved only by taking higher risks. Diversifying the portfolio gets rid some of the risk but systematic risk cannot be diversified away. These risks can be managed by hedging the investments with derivatives. The use of derivatives should improve the performance of the portfolios using them compared to the funds that don’t. However, previous studies have shown that the risk exposure and return performance of derivative users does not considerably differ from nonusers. The purpose of this study is to examine how the use of derivatives affects the performance of equity funds. The funds studied were 155 equity funds registered in Finland in 2013. Empirical research was done by studying the derivative use of the funds during a 6-year period between 2008–2013. The performance of the funds was studied quantitatively by using several different performance measures used in mutual fund industry; Sharpe Ratio, Treynor Ratio, Jensen's alpha, Sortino Ratio, M2 and Omega Ratio. The effect of derivative use on funds' performance was studied by using a dummy variable and comparing performance measures of derivative-users and nonusers. The differences in performance measures between the two groups were analyzed with statistical tests. The hypothesis was that funds' derivative use should improve their performance relative to the funds that don't use them. The results of this study are in line with previous studies that state that the use of derivatives does not improve mutual funds' performance. When performance was measured with Jensen's alpha, funds that did not use derivatives performed better than the ones that used them. When measured with other performance measures, the results didn’t differ between two groups.

The effects of computer assisted interactive fiction on the development of reading comprehension in grade five students

This study was undertaken in order to determine the effects of playing computer based text adventure games on the reading comprehension gains of students. Forty-five grade five students from one elementary school were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups, and were tested with regard to ability, achievement and reading skills. An experimental treatment, consisting of playing computer based interactive fiction games of the student's choice for fifteen minutes each day over an eight-week period, was administered. A comparison treatment engaged the control group in sustained silent reading of materials of the student's choice for an equal period of time. Following the experimental period all students were post-tested with an alternate form of the pre-test in reading skills, and gain scores were analysed. It was found that there were no significant differences in the gain scores of the experimental and control groups for overall reading comprehenSion, but the experimental group showed greater gains than the control group in the structural analysis reading sub-skill. Extreme variance in the data made generalization very difficult, but the findings indicated a potential for computer based interactive fiction as a useful tool for developing reading sl

The effects of static and diurnally-cycling temperature acclimations on thermal tolerances of rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri

:ofiedian lethal temperatures ( LT50' s ) were determined for rainbow trout, Salmo gairdnerii, acclimated for a minimum of 21 days at 5 c onstant temperatures between 4 and 20 0 C. and 2 diel temperature fluctuations ( sinewave curves of amplitudes ± 4 and ± 7 0 C. about a mean temperature of 12 0 C. ) . Twenty-four-, 48-, and 96-hour LT50 estimates were c alculated f ollowing standard flow-through aquatic bioassay techniques and probi t transformation of mortality data. The phenomenon of delayed thermal mortality was also investigated. Shifts in upper incipient lethal temperature occurred as a result of previous thermal conditioning. It was shown that increases in constant acclimation temperature result in proportional l inear increases in thermal tolerances. The increase i n estimated 96-hour LT50's was approximately 0.13 0 c. X 1 0 C:1 between 8 and 20 0 C. The effect of acclimation to both cyclic temperature regimes was an increase in LT50 to values between the mean and maximum constant equivalent daily temperatures of the cycles. Twenty-four-, 48-, and 96-hour LT50 estimates of both cycles corresponded approximately to the LT50 values of the 16 0 C. c onstant temperature equivalent . This increase i n thermal tolerance was further demonstrated by the delayed thermal mortality experiments . Cycle amplitudes appeared to i nfluence thermal resistance through alterations in initi al mortality since mortality patterns characteristic of base temperature acclimations re-appeared after approximately 68 hours exposure to test temperatures for the 12 + 4 0 C. group, whereas mortality patterns stabilized and remained constant for a period greater than 192 hours with the larger therma l cycle ( 12 + 7 0 C. ). NO s ignificant corre lations between s pecimen weight and time-to-death was apparent. Data are discussed in relation to the establishment of thermal criteria for important commercial and sport fishes , such as the salmonids , as is the question whether previously reported values on lethal temperature s may have been under estimated.

The effects of teaching a mathematics problem solving strategy on the problem solving ability of grade nine students

Forty grade 9 students were selected from a small rural board in southern Ontario. The students were in two classes and were treated as two groups. The treatment group received instruction in the Logical Numerical Problem Solving Strategy every day for 37 minutes over a 6 week period. The control group received instruction in problem solving without this strategy over the same time period. Then the control group received the treat~ent and the treatment group received the instruction without the strategy. Quite a large variance was found in the problem solving ability of students in grade 9. It was also found that the growth of the problem solving ability achievement of students could be measured using growth strands based upon the results of the pilot study. The analysis of the results of the study using t-tests and a MANOVA demonstrated that the teaching of the strategy did not significaritly (at p s 0.05) increase the problem solving achievement of the students. However, there was an encouraging trend seen in the data.

The effects of simple procedural, cognitive procedural and declarative learning on sleep /

Sleep spindles have been found to increase following an intense period of learning on a combination of motor tasks. It is not clear whether these changes are task specific, or a result of learning in general. The current study investigated changes in sleep spindles and spectral power following learning on cognitive procedural (C-PM), simple procedural (S-PM) or declarative (DM) learning tasks. It was hypothesized that S-PM learning would result in increases in Sigma power during Non-REM sleep, whereas C-PM and DM learning would not affect Sigma power. It was also hypothesized that DM learning would increase Theta power during REM sleep, whereas S-PM and C-PM learning would not affect Theta power. Thirty-six participants spent three consecutive nights in the sleep laboratory. Baseline polysomnographic recordings were collected on night 2. Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: C-PM, S-PM, DM or control (C). Memory task training occurred on night 3 followed by polysomnographic recording. Re-testing on respective memory tasks occurred one-week following training. EEG was sampled at 256Hz from 16 sites during sleep. Artifact-free EEG from each sleep stage was submitted to power spectral analysis. The C-PM group made significantly fewer errors, the DM group recalled more, and the S-PM improved on performance from test to re-test. There was a significant night by group interaction for the duration of Stage 2 sleep. Independent t-tests revealed that the S-PM group had significantly more Stage 2 sleep on the test night than the C group. The C-PM and the DM group did not differ from controls in the duration of Stage 2 sleep on test night. There was no significant change in the duration of slow wave sleep (SWS) or REM sleep. Sleep spindle density (spindles/minute) increased significantly from baseline to test night following S-PM learning, but not for C-PM, DM or C groups. This is the first study to have shown that the same pattern of results was found for spindles in SWS. Low Sigma power (12-14Hz) increased significantly during SWS following S-PM learning but not for C-PM, DM or C groups. This effect was maximal at Cz, and the largest increase in Sigma power was at Oz. It was also found that Theta power increased significantly during REM sleep following DM learning, but not for S-PM, C-PM or C groups. This effect was maximal at Cz and the largest change in Theta power was observed at Cz. These findings are consistent with the previous research that simple procedural learning is consolidated during Stage 2 sleep, and provide additional data to suggest that sleep spindles across all non-REM stages and not just Stage 2 sleep may be a mechanism for brain plasticity. This study also provides the first evidence to suggest that Theta activity during REM sleep is involved in memory consolidation.

A microanalysis of EMG and EEG changes during the sleep onset period (SOP) : a theoretical investigation with practical applications /

The present study has both theoretical and practical aspects. The theoretical intent of the study was to closely examine the relationship between muscle activity (EMG) and EEG state during the process of falling asleep. Sleep stages during sleep onset (SO) have been generally defined with regards to brain wave activity (Recht schaff en & Kales (1968); and more precisely by Hori, Hayashi, & Morikawa (1994)). However, no previous study has attempted to quantify the changes in muscle activity during this same process. The practical aspect of the study examined the reliability ofa commercially developed wrist-worn alerting device (NovAlert™) that utilizes changes in muscle activity/tension in order to alert its user in the event that he/she experiences reduced wakefulness that may result in dangerous consequences. Twelve female participants (aged 18-42) sp-ent three consecutive nights in the sleep lab ("Adaptation", "EMG", and "NOVA" nights). Each night participants were given 5, twenty-minute nap opportunities. On the EMG night, participants were allowed to fall asleep freely. On the NOV A night, participants wore the Nov Alert™ wrist device that administered a Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) when it detected that muscle activity levels had dropped below baseline. Nap sessions were scored using Hori's 9-stage scoring system (Hori et aI, 1994). Power spectral analyses (FFT) were also performed. Effects ofthe PVT administration on EMG and EEG frequencies were also examined. Both chin and wrist EMG activity showed reliable and significant decline during the early stages ofHori staging (stages HO to H3 characterized by decreases in alpha activity). All frequency bands studied went through significant changes as the participants progressed through each ofHori's 9 SO stages. Delta, theta, and sigma activity increased later in the SO continuum while a clear alpha dominance shift was noted as alpha activity shifted from the posterior regions of the brain (during Hori stages HO to H3) to the anterior portions (during Hori stages H7 to H9). Administration of the PVT produced significant increases in EMG activity and was effective in reversing subjective drowsiness experienced during the later stages of sleep onset. Limitations of the alerting effects of the PVTs were evident following 60 to 75 minutes of use in that PVTs delivered afterwards were no longer able to significantly increase EMG levels. The present study provides a clearer picture of the changes in EMG and EEG during the sleep onset period while testing the efficacy of a commercially developed alerting device. EMG decreases were found to begin during Hori stage 0 when EEG was - dominated by alpha wave activity and were maximal as Hori stages 2 to 5 were traversed (coincident with alpha and beta activity). This signifies that EMG decrements and the loss of resting alpha activity are closely related. Since decreased alpha has long been associated with drowsiness and impending sleep, this investigation links drops in muscle tone with sleepiness more directly than in previous investigations. The EMG changes were reliably demonstrated across participants and the NovAlert™ detected the EMG decrements when Hori stage 3 was entered. The alerting vibrations produced by the NovAlert™ occurred early enough in the SO process to be of practical importance as a sleepiness monitoring and alerting device.

Immediate and enduring effects of corticosterone administration during adolescence and adulthood on anxiety and depressive behavior in male rats

Previous research has shown that the stress hormone corticosterone can increase depressive and anxiety-like behavior in rats as well as dampen the HPA response to a novel stressor (Kalynchuk et aI., 2004; Johnson et aI., 2006). Several studies have also shown that adolescence is a period of increased sensitivity to the negative effects of stressors (reviewed in McCormick et aI., 2010), which are often the result of exposure to corticosterone, and yet there is no research to date examining the effects of corticosterone administration during adolescence. The purpose of these experiments is to determine both the immediate and enduring effects of prolonged exposure to corticosterone in adolescence and adulthood on anxiety-like behavior, depressive behavior, and the HPA response. In Experiment 1 adolescent and adult rats were administered an injection of 40 mg/kg of corticosterone or vehicle daily for 16 days. Ha l f of the rats were then tested on the elevated plus maze (EPM) one day after their last injection, and the following day were tested on the forced swim test (FST). After the FST, which is a stressor, blood samples were collected at three time points, and the plasma concentrations of corticosterone were determined using a radioimmunoassay. The remaining rats were left undisturbed for three weeks, and then underwent the same testing as the first group. Corticosterone treatment had little effect on anxiety-like and depressive behavior, but it did alter the HPA response to the FST. In those rats tested soon after the period of injections, corticosterone dampened the HPA response as compared to vehicle treated rats in both adolescent and adult treated rats. For the adolescent treated rats that were tested several weeks later, corticosterone treatment increased HPA response as compared to the vehicle treated rats, but the same was not true for the adult treated rats. I t was hypothesized that the lack of behavioral effects of the corticosterone treatment may be the result of the vehicle injections inducing a stress response and thereby both groups would have similarly altered behavior. In Experiment 2 rats were administered corticosterone dissolved in their drinking water with 2.5% ethanol, or jus t the 2.5% ethanol or plain water, to determine the effects of corticosterone treatment without a stressor present. The regular drinking water was replaced with treated water for 16 days either during adulthood or adolescence, and as before, rats were either tested in the FST one day after the water was removed or three weeks later. Again there was no effect of treatment on depressive behavior. Similar to what was observed in Experiment 1, corticosterone treatment dampened the HPA response to a stressor for the rats tested soon after the treatment period. However, in Experiment 2 there was no effect of treatment on HPA response in those rats tested several weeks after they were treated. These results indicate that corticosterone can have a lasting effect on the HPA when administered in adolescence by injections but not in drinking water, which is likely because of the different schedules of exposure and rates of absorption between the two administration methods.

Effects of Proactive and Retroactive Augmented Information on Physiological Responses in Learning a Novel Motor Skill

Previous research has demonstrated superior learning by participants presented with augmented task information retroactively versus proactively (Patterson & Lee, 2008; 2010). Theoretical explanations of these findings are related to the cognitive effort invested by participants during motor skill acquisition. The present study extended previous research by utilizing the physiological index, power spectral analysis of heart rate variability, previously shown to be sensitive to the degree of cognitive effort invested during the performance of a motor task (e.g., increase cognitive effort results in increased LF/HF ratio). Participants were required to learn 18 different key-pressing sequences. As expected, the proactive condition demonstrated superior RS during acquisition, with the retroactive condition demonstrating superior RS during retention. Measures of LF/HF ratio indicated the retroactive participants were investing significantly less cognitive effort in the retention period compared to the proactive participants (p< .05) as a function of learning.

The effects of a 12-week multifactorial exercise and balance training program on balance control in older adults

The current thesis investigated the effects of a 12-week multifactorial exercise and balance training program on balance control in older adults. Participants completed a baseline testing session which included a series of questionnaires, anthropometric measures, and 18 stance and walking tests. Those who were randomly assigned to the exercise group participated in the 12-week training program while the comparison group was asked not to change anything in his/her lifestyle during the 12-week control period, but were invited to participate in the training program after his/her control period. The same testing protocol was repeated after the 12-week period. The results indicated that there were improvements in the time to complete the walking tests but no change in trunk sway in both the exercise and comparison groups. No changes in stance durations or trunk sway were observed. The findings suggest that the current training program showed no significant improvement in balance control in healthy older adults.

Disambiguating the Effects of Social Instability Stress in Adolescence on Learning and Memory Tasks that Involve the Medial Prefrontal Cortex and Hippocampus

Exposure to chronic stress can alter the structure and function of brain regions involved in learning and memory, and these effects are typically long-lasting if the stress occurs during sensitive periods of development. Until recently, adolescence has received relatively little attention as a sensitive period of development, despite marked changes in behaviour, heightened reactivity to stressors, and cognitive and neural maturation. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the long-term effects of chronic stress in adolescence on two spatial learning and memory tasks (Morris water maze and Spatial Object Location test) and on a working memory task (Delayed Alternation task). Male rats were randomly assigned to chronic social instability stress (SS; daily 1 hour isolation and subsequent change of cage partner between postnatal days 30 and 45) or to a no-stress control group (CTL). During acquisition learning in the Morris water maze task, SS rats demonstrated impaired long-term memory for the location of the hidden escape platform compared to CTL rats, although the impairment was only seen after the first day of training. Similarly, SS rats had impaired long-term memory in the Spatial Object Location test after a long delay (240 minutes), but not after shorter delays (15 or 60 minutes) compared to CTL rats. On the Delayed Alternation task, which assessed working memory across delays ranging from 5 to 90 seconds, no group differences were observed. These results are partially in line with previous research that revealed adult impairment on spatial learning and memory tasks after exposure to chronic social instability stress in adolescence. The observed deficits, however, appear to be limited to long-term memory as no group differences were observed during brief periods of retention.

The Effects of a Psychosocial Behavioural Intervention on Arterial Health in Children

This study evaluated the effects of a Leisure and Well-Being Model (LWM) psychosocial intervention on arterial health, measured by arterial stiffness and thickness, in 82 children aged 10-13 (n=41; intervention, n=41; control) over one year. The intervention was to provide children with the awareness, skill development, and application of positive emotion, personal strengths, coping, and free-time vitality. Results showed no change in arterial health for children exposed to the intervention compared to controls. However, a significant systolic blood pressure decrease was found in children exposed to the intervention and increased in those of the control group (F (1, 73) = 4.085, p = 0.047). This is the first study to show that a psychosocial intervention has a positive effect on childhood cardiovascular health within one year. Hence, if exposed for-or followed for- a longer period of time, it may be possible to see further improvements in arterial health.

Can a Manipulated Mind Alter Matter? : The Effects of Verbal Feedback on Self-Efficacy, Exercise Intention, and Exercise Behaviour among Low-Active College-Aged Women

Self-efficacy (SE), a person’s confidence in the ability to perform a task, is an important predictor of the adoption and maintenance of physical activity. The present study examined the effects of SE manipulated through verbal persuasion on exercise intentions and behaviour during a 4-week follow-up period and investigated the role of social physique anxiety (SPA) as a moderator. Female college infrequent exercisers (n = 66) were randomly assigned into one of three groups (high-efficacy [HE], low-efficacy [LE], or control) and asked to complete several questionnaires at baseline. The HE and LE groups were provided with positive and negative exercise adherence feedback, respectively. The HE group reported higher SE from pre- to post-feedback. Both the HE and LE groups reported increases in exercise behaviour at the 4-week follow-up. Pre- to post-feedback changes in SE, exercise intention, and exercise behaviour did not depend on level of SPA reported.

Restoration and succession of a bee community in southern St. Catharines, Ontario, within a ten-year study period

A wild bee community in southern St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, was studied from 2003 to 2012 to analyze the effects of primary succession on abundance and diversity. At a former landfill site near Brock University, which previously contained no bees, the number of bees and bee species was expected to increase rapidly following measures to restore the site to grassy meadow habitat. The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis (IDH) states that over time, succession occurs. Abundance and diversity increase initially and peak when pioneers coexist with specialized species, then decline because of competitive exclusion. Alternatively, abundance and diversity may continue to increase and stabilize without declining. Bees were sampled repeatedly among years from newer restoration sites (revegetated in 2003), older restoration sites on the periphery of the former landfill (revegetated in 2000), and nearby low disturbance grassy field (i.e. control) sites. In the newer sites, bee abundance and diversity increased then decreased while in older restoration and control sites mainly decreased. This pattern of succession matches the general predictions of the IDH, although declines were at least partially related to drought. By 2006, total bee abundance levels converged among all sites, indicating rapid colonization and succession, and by 2012 diversity levels were similar among sites as well, suggesting that the bee community was fully restored or nearly so within the ten-year study period.

The effects of oxidative stress on the retinal structure and function

Des études antérieures ont démontré que le métabolisme de la rétine, son apport sanguin et sa consommation de l'oxygène sont plus élevés dans le noir (Riva C.E. et al. 1983, Wang L. et al. 1996, Tam B.M. and Moritz O.L. 2007). Les stimuli physiologiques jouent supposément un rôle important dans le développement des différents systèmes nerveux (Arthur W. Spira, David Parkinson 1991). La privation de la rétine de son stimulus physiologique, la lumière, est un moyen valable de démontrer la validité de ce concept. D'autres études ont affirmé que les injections de dichlorure de paraquat dans la cavité vitréenne causent une sévère rétinopathie (Rétinopathie induite par paraquat: RIP). Cette rétinopathie est provoquée par les dérivés réactifs de l'oxygène (DRO) générés par le paraquat (Cingolani C. et al. 2006, Lu L. et al. 2006). Le but de notre premier projet (''Dark rearing project'') était de déterminer si les conséquences nocives de l'hyperoxie postnatale chez les rats albinos SD pourraient être amoindries en élevant une portée de rats au noir. Nos résultats suggèrent qu'une augmentation du métabolisme de la rétine causée par la déprivation de lumière chez les ratons, pourrait protéger ou masquer certains effets néfastes de l'hyperoxie postnatale. Le but de notre deuxième étude (''Paraquat project'') était d'examiner les possibles points de similitude entre RIP et d'autres modèles de rétinopathies oxydatives étudiés présentement par notre équipe, à savoir: Rétinopathie induite par l'oxygène (RIO) et Rétinopathie induite par la lumière (RIL). Nos résultats suggèrent que l'injection de dichlorure de paraquat dans la cavité vitréenne cause des changements sévères de la fonction de la rétine, tandis que sa structure semble intacte. La sévérité de ces changements dépend inversement de la maturité de la rétine au moment de l'injection.