Employment and Income of Workers on Indonesian Oil Palm Plantations: Food Crisis at the Micro Level

The importance of oil palm sector for Indonesia is inevitable as the country currently serves as the world’s largest producer of crude palm oil. This paper focuses on the situation of workers on Indonesian oil palm plantations. It attempts to investigate whether the remarkable development of the sector is followed by employment opportunities and income generation for workers. This question is posed within the theoretical framework on the link between trade liberalisation and labour rights, particularly in a labour-intensive and low-skilled sector. Based on extensive field research in Riau, this paper confirms that despite the rapid development of the oil palm plantation sector in Indonesia, the situations of workers in the sector remain deplorable, particularly their employment status and income. This also attests that trade liberalisation in the sector adversely affects labour rights. The poor working conditions also have ramifications for food security at the micro level.

Impact on Policy Responses to Food Price Crisis and Rural Food Security in Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka policy responses have direct impacts on rural dwellers. Over 80% of Sri Lanka’s population live in rural areas and 90% of them represent low income dwellers. Their production system may be hampered by fragmented landholding, poor economics of scale, low investment levels resulting from poor financial services as well as inappropriate or limited technology. They are vulnerable to price hikes of basic foods and food security issues due to fragmented landholding and poor financial services. Policy measures to reduce the transmission of higher international prices in domestic markets exist to protect the food security of the vulnerable population. This paper will discuss the food policy and strategies implemented by the government and outside to the above facts this paper also describes the effectiveness of the policies forwarded by the government. The objective of this study is to analyse the impact of policy responses to the food price crisis and rural food security in Sri Lanka. Outside of the above facts this study also treats the impact of policies and decisions on the nutritional condition of rural dwellers. Furthermore this study is to analyse the fluctuation of buying power with the price hikes and the relation of above facts with issues like malnutrition. This paper discusses why policy makers should pay greater attention to rural dwellers and describes the multiple pathways through which food price increases have on rural people. It also provides evidence of the impact of this crisis in particular, through hidden hunger, and discusses how current policy responses should adjust and improve to protect the rural dwellers in the short and long term.

Entwicklung eines Verfahrens zum Schneiden und Schälen von Obst mit Hochdruckwasserstrahlen

Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein Verfahren vorgestellt und untersucht, mit welchem Früchte annähernd verlustfrei und unter sehr hygienischen Bedingungen geschnitten werden können. Die Produkte – hier gezeigt am Beispiel von Äpfeln und Melonen – werden mit einem Hochdruckwasserstrahl geschnitten, der durch ein bildverarbeitendes System entsprechend der Anatomie der Frucht geführt werden kann. Die Vorteile dieses Verfahrens sind die individuelle Schnittführung, die Materialverluste minimiert und die Tatsache, dass die Frucht ohne wesentlichen Eingriff von Personal bearbeitet wird. Die Literaturauswertung ergab, dass diese Technologie bislang noch nicht bearbeitet wurde. Der Einsatz des Hochdruckwasserstrahlschneidens im Bereich der Agrartechnik beschränkte sich auf das Schneiden von Zuckerrüben Brüser [2008], Ligocki [2005] bzw. Kartoffeln Becker u. Gray [1992], das Zerteilen von Fleisch Bansal u. Walker [1999] und Fisch Lobash u. a. [1990] sowie die Nutzung von Wasserstrahlen im Zusammenhang mit der Injektion von Flüssigdünger in Ackerböden Niemoeller u. a. [2011]. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es daher, die Einsatzmöglichkeiten des Wasserstrahlschneidens zu erfassen und zu bewerten. Dazu wurden in einer Vielzahl von Einzelversuchen die Zusammenhänge zwischen den Prozessparametern wie Wasserdruck, Düsendurchmesser, Vorschubgeschwindigkeit und Düsenabstand auf das Schnittergebnis, also die Rauheit der entstehenden Schnittfläche untersucht. Ein Vergleich mit konventionellen Schneidemethoden erfolgte hinsichtlich der Schnittergebnisse und der Auswirkungen des Wasserstrahlschneidens auf nachfolgende Verfahrensschritte, wie dem Trocknen.

Sensor-based Control of Chewing and Rumination Behavior of Dairy Cows

The measurement of feed intake, feeding time and rumination time, summarized by the term feeding behavior, are helpful indicators for early recognition of animals which show deviations in their behavior. The overall objective of this work was the development of an early warning system for inadequate feeding rations and digestive and metabolic disorders, which prevention constitutes the basis for health, performance, and reproduction. In a literature review, the current state of the art and the suitability of different measurement tools to determine feeding behavior of ruminants was discussed. Five measurement methods based on different methodological approaches (visual observance, pressure transducer, electrical switches, electrical deformation sensors and acoustic biotelemetry), and three selected measurement techniques (the IGER Behavior Recorder, the Hi-Tag rumination monitoring system and RumiWatchSystem) were described, assessed and compared to each other within this review. In the second study, the new system for measuring feeding behavior of dairy cows was evaluated. The measurement of feeding behavior ensues through electromyography (EMG). For validation, the feeding behavior of 14 cows was determined by both the EMG system and by visual observation. The high correlation coefficients indicate that the current system is a reliable and suitable tool for monitoring the feeding behavior of dairy cows. The aim of a further study was to compare the DairyCheck (DC) system and two additional measurement systems for measuring rumination behavior in relation to efficiency, reliability and reproducibility, with respect to each other. The two additional systems were labeled as the Lely Qwes HR (HR) sensor, and the RumiWatchSystem (RW). Results of accordance of RW and DC to each other were high. The last study examined whether rumination time (RT) is affected by the onset of calving and if it might be a useful indicator for the prediction of imminent birth. Data analysis referred to the final 72h before the onset of calving, which were divided into twelve 6h-blocks. The results showed that RT was significantly reduced in the final 6h before imminent birth.

Nutrition in Kindergartens of Kosovo

Einer physiologisch angemessenen Ernährung in der Kindheit wird eine wichtige Rolle in der physischen, mentalen und emotionalen Entwicklung vom Kindes- bis zum späteren Erwachsenenalter zugeschrieben. Obwohl es bisher nur wenige Daten zum Gesundheits- und Ernährungsstatus im Kosovo gibt, zeigen diese Studien aus der Zeit vor und nach dem Kosovokrieg, dass Unterernährung und der Mangel einiger wichtiger Mikronährstoffe bei Kindern im Vorschulalter vorherrschen. Deshalb ist es erforderlich, die Daten von Kindern im Vorschulalter zu erfassen und zu untersuchen, was zum einen durch anthropometrische Parameter als auch durch die Analyse des Nährstoffgehaltes der Mahlzeiten in Kindergärten (Häufigkeit der Mahlzeiten, adäquate Mengen an z.B. Obst und Gemüse, etc.) in dieser Arbeit erfolgt. Diese wissenschaftliche Untersuchung stellt fest, dass das Wachstum der Vorschulkinder und die angebotene Lebensmittelvielfalt ebenso wie die Nähr- und Energiewerte der dargebotenen Mahlzeiten in Kindergärten im Kosovo nur teilweise den internationalen Ernährungsempfehlungen für diese Altersstufe genügen. Der Anteil an untergewichtigen Kindern wird mit 0,7% ermittelt, während 0,5% stark untergewichtig sind. 1,9% der Kinder leiden unter moderater und 0,8% der Kinder leiden unter schwerer akuter Unterernährung. Der Gewicht/Größe Indikator (12-24 Monate alter Kinder) zeigt, dass keine Kinder als adipös einzustufen sind, während 6,8% übergewichtig sind und 34,1% ein mögliches Risiko für Übergewicht zeigen. Die Verteilung der Geschlechter spielt bei Adipositas keine Rolle, da weder Jungen noch Mädchen adipös sind. Jedoch sind 7,4% der Jungen und 5,9% der Mädchen übergewichtig und 29,6% der Jungen und 41,2% der Mädchen zeigen ein mögliches Risiko für Übergewicht. Der BMI Indikator (24-83 Monate alte Kinder) zeigt, dass der Anteil der adipösen Kinder bei 2,3% liegt, während 8,94% übergewichtig sind und 27,3% ein Risiko für mögliches Übergewicht aufweisen. Was das Geschlecht anbelangt, sind 2,68% der Jungen und 1,44% der Mädchen adipös, 10,88% der Jungen und 5,86% der Mädchen sind übergewichtig und 29,12% der Jungen sowie 25,16% der Mädchen zeigen die Tendenz zu einem möglichen Übergewicht. Die durchschnittliche Energieaufnahme (ganztags – 8 Stunden) reicht von 455 kcal im Kindergarten 4 bis hin zu 992 kcal im Kindergarten 1, was 36% und 79% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr ausmacht. Der durchschnittliche Verzehr von Proteinen/Aminosäuren der Kinder aus allen untersuchten Kindergärten erweist sich als höher als erforderlich für diese Altersstufe. Trotz der durchschnittlichen Aufnahme von 27% der absoluten Fettmenge beträgt der durchschnittliche Anteil der Energie von SFA, MUFA und PUFA nicht mehr als 35% der empfohlenen Menge. Der Gesamtballaststoffaufnahme (ganztags – 8 Stunden) liegt zwischen 2,3 Gramm und 8,1 Gramm, was 30% und 46% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr ausmacht. Die Aufnahme von Kalzium, Eisen und besonders Jod liegt unter den Empfehlungen, während die Aufnahme von Chlorid und Natrium wesentlich höher ist als die empfohlene tägliche Menge. Die Aufnahme von Folsäure ist in öffentlichen Kindergärten (ganztags – 8 Stunden) relativ gering und deckt lediglich 23% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr. Die tägliche Vitamin C Aufnahme der Kinder aus öffentlichen Kindergärten ist ziemlich gering und deckt 23% und 28% der empfohlenen Tageszufuhr. Die Ernährung im Kindergarten zeigt Defizite in der Aufnahme von Mikronährstoffen, besonders von Kalzium, Eisen, Jod, Folsäure, Vitamin A, Vitamin C in öffentlichen Kindergärten und Vitamin D. Die überschrittene Aufnahme von Chlorid und Natrium konnte in allen Kindern beobachtet werden, unabhängig von Geschlecht, Alter und dem Kindergarten. Im Kindergarten konsumieren Kinder mehr Lebensmittel mit einer höheren Energiedichte und werden nicht dazu ermutigt, abwechslungsreichere und gesündere Lebensmittel zu wählen. Verarbeitete und raffinierte Lebensmittel werden von Vorschulkindern bereits ab dem ersten Lebensjahr konsumiert. Der Anteil der Kinder, welche ihre Mahlzeiten auslassen beträgt 12,9%, während 30,2% manchmal ihre Mahlzeiten auslassen. Das Ernährungsmuster zeigt geringe Werte für Vollkornprodukte, Früchte und Gemüse, jedoch hohe Werte für Softdrinks, süße und salzige Lebensmittel. Die Aufnahme von Obst und Gemüse der Vorschulkinder ist viel geringer als die täglich empfohlene Portionsmenge. Die Eltern werden nicht angeleitet, Vorschulkindern bei der Schaffung gesunder Ernährungsgewohnheiten zu helfen, demzufolge ist das kindliche Essverhalten und die Ernährungspraxis von den Eltern und ihrem eigenen Ernährungsstil beeinflusst. Nach dieser Studie muss festgestellt werden, dass gesunde Ernährungsmuster bei Vorschulkindern im Kosovo nicht etabliert sind. Im Vergleich zu den bereits durchgeführten Untersuchungen zeigt diese Studie, dass sich im Kosovo eine Ernährungswende andeutet: das Untergewicht im Vorschulalter nimmt leicht ab, jedoch steigt die Prävalenz von Übergewicht und Adipositas. Der beobachtete Anstieg von Übergewicht und Adipositas ist wahrscheinlich eine Konsequenz des rapiden Wandels des Ernährungsverhaltens nach dem Kosovokrieg. Das Land hat bis jetzt noch keine nationalen und lokalen Strategien oder Programme entwickelt, welche die Routineuntersuchungen von Kindern regulieren, um eventuelle negative Trends zu verfolgen und umzukehren. Zur Zeit gibt es keine Ernährungsrichtlinien und nur sehr wenig Beratung für die Menügestaltung in Kindergärten im Kosovo. Als erster Schritt wird empfohlen, dass die Gesellschaft und die Institutionen im Kosovo die Probleme der Unterernährung, des Übergewichts und der Adipositas sowie deren negativen Auswirkungen auf den gesamten Gesundheitsstatus verschiedener Bevölkerungsgruppen, insbesondere der Kinder, anerkennen. Gesundes Wachstum und die Kontrolle der Unterernährung und des Übergewichts im Kindesalter sollte alle Stufen der Gesellschaft einbeziehen. Gesundheits- und Bildungsbehörden im Kosovo sollten nationale Programme zur empfohlenen täglichen Aufnahme und zu Ernährungsrichtlinien für Kinder im Vorschulalter entwickeln. Die Richtlinien sollten Empfehlungen bezüglich Energie, Makro- und Mikronährstoffe in der täglichen Ernährung Auskunft erteilen aber auch über Ernährungsstile und – verhalten sowie das Strukturieren von Mahlzeiten für Vorschulkinder und andere Bevölkerungsgruppen informieren. Die beobachteten Defizite im Bereich der Mikronährstoffaufnahme wie zum Beispiel von Kalzium, Eisen, Jod, Folsäure, Vitamin A, Vitamin C, Vitamin D ebenso wie die zu hohe Aufnahme und Chlorid und Natrium in öffentlichen Kindergärten sollten sofort angesprochen werden. Erzieher in Kindergärten sollten eine Weiterbildung im Bereich der Entwicklung des Ernährungsverhalten bei Vorschulkindern erhalten und die Definitionen von Unterernährung und Übergewicht und deren Prävention kennen. Partnerschaften zwischen Kindergärten und Eltern sind erforderlich, um den Kindern eine gesündere Lebensmittelwahl zu ermöglichen. Kinder im Vorschulalter und auch Kinder anderer Altersgruppen sollten ermutigt werden, ihren Verzehr an Früchten, Gemüse, Vollkornbrot und –getreide sowie ungesättigten Fettsäuren zu steigern und somit mehr pflanzliche Produkte wie Gemüse und Obst zu ihren Gerichten hinzuzufügen. Dies würde auch den Gehalt an Ballaststoffen erhöhen, der in der Kindheit sehr wichtig ist. Es wird empfohlen, verarbeitete Lebensmittel so häufig wie möglich zu vermeiden und unverarbeitete oder minimal verarbeitete Lebensmittel zu bevorzugen. Es ist erforderlich, ein Ernährungssystem zu entwickeln und außerdem die internationalen Wachstumsstandards (WHO oder andere) anzuwenden, welche das Beobachten des Ernährungsstatus‘ bei Kindern durch Routineuntersuchungen regeln, damit eventuelle Negativtrends verfolgt und umgekehrt werden können. Die Entwicklung universitärer Bildungsprogramme mit Bezug auf Ernährung und die Einführung eines Faches zur gesunden Ernährung und zu gesunden Lebensstilen in die Curricula der Bildungsinstitutionen im Kosovo werden empfohlen. Weitere Untersuchungen zum Gesundheitsstatus und zur Ernährungsqualität bei Vorschulkindern würden zusätzliche Einblicke in die der Auswirkung der frühen Lebensjahre auf Beziehung von Kindheitsernährung und Krankheiten gewähren. Die Untersuchung von Gesundheitsrisiken gekoppelt mit ungesunden Ernährungsgewohnheiten bei Vorschulkindern wird empfohlen. Weitere Studien sind nötig, um die Nahrungszufuhr im Kindergarten zu untersuchen, jedoch sollten Vorschulkinder, welche keinen Kindergarten besuchen, ebenfalls mit eingeschlossen werden. Außerdem sind Studien erforderlich, welche die Auswirkungen des steigenden Konsums gesüßter Getränke und anderer Lebensmittel auf Übergewicht und Adipositas untersuchen. Ferner werden Studien empfohlen, um den Gesundheitseffekt der Ernährungsmuster in der Kindheit zu identifizieren. Außerdem sind periodische Studien erforderlich, um die Veränderung der Prävalenz von Übergewicht und Adipositas bei Kindern zukünftig zu vergleichen. Risikofaktoren für Adipositas bei Kindern durch periodische Studien zu identifizieren ist ebenfalls erforderlich, um die Prävalenz der Adipositas bei Kindern in den künftigen Jahren zu vergleichen.

Optimization of Processing Technology for Commercial Drying of Bananas (Matooke)

Summary - Cooking banana is one of the most important crops in Uganda; it is a staple food and source of household income in rural areas. The most common cooking banana is locally called matooke, a Musa sp triploid acuminate genome group (AAA-EAHB). It is perishable and traded in fresh form leading to very high postharvest losses (22-45%). This is attributed to: non-uniform level of harvest maturity, poor handling, bulk transportation and lack of value addition/processing technologies, which are currently the main challenges for trade and export, and diversified utilization of matooke. Drying is one of the oldest technologies employed in processing of agricultural produce. A lot of research has been carried out on drying of fruits and vegetables, but little information is available on matooke. Drying of matooke and milling it to flour extends its shelf-life is an important means to overcome the above challenges. Raw matooke flour is a generic flour developed to improve shelf stability of the fruit and to find alternative uses. It is rich in starch (80 - 85%db) and subsequently has a high potential as a calorie resource base. It possesses good properties for both food and non-food industrial use. Some effort has been done to commercialize the processing of matooke but there is still limited information on its processing into flour. It was imperative to carry out an in-depth study to bridge the following gaps: lack of accurate information on the maturity window within which matooke for processing into flour can be harvested leading to non-uniform quality of matooke flour; there is no information on moisture sorption isotherm for matooke from which the minimum equilibrium moisture content in relation to temperature and relative humidity is obtainable, below which the dry matooke would be microbiologically shelf-stable; and lack of information on drying behavior of matooke and standardized processing parameters for matooke in relation to physicochemical properties of the flour. The main objective of the study was to establish the optimum harvest maturity window and optimize the processing parameters for obtaining standardized microbiologically shelf-stable matooke flour with good starch quality attributes. This research was designed to: i) establish the optimum maturity harvest window within which matooke can be harvested to produce a consistent quality of matooke flour, ii) establish the sorption isotherms for matooke, iii) establish the effect of process parameters on drying characteristics of matooke, iv) optimize the drying process parameters for matooke, v) validate the models of maturity and optimum process parameters and vi) standardize process parameters for commercial processing of matooke. Samples were obtained from a banana plantation at Presidential Initiative on Banana Industrial Development (PIBID), Technology Business Incubation Center (TBI) at Nyaruzunga – Bushenyi in Western Uganda. A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed in selecting the banana stools from which samples for the experiments were picked. The cultivar Mbwazirume which is soft cooking and commonly grown in Bushenyi was selected for the study. The static gravitation method recommended by COST 90 Project (Wolf et al., 1985), was used for determination of moisture sorption isotherms. A research dryer developed for this research. All experiments were carried out in laboratories at TBI. The physiological maturity of matooke cv. mbwazirume at Bushenyi is 21 weeks. The optimum harvest maturity window for commercial processing of matooke flour (Raw Tooke Flour - RTF) at Bushenyi is between 15-21 weeks. The finger weight model is recommended for farmers to estimate harvest maturity for matooke and the combined model of finger weight and pulp peel ratio is recommended for commercial processors. Matooke isotherms exhibited type II curve behavior which is characteristic of foodstuffs. The GAB model best described all the adsorption and desorption moisture isotherms. For commercial processing of matooke, in order to obtain a microbiologically shelf-stable dry product. It is recommended to dry it to moisture content below or equal to 10% (wb). The hysteresis phenomenon was exhibited by the moisture sorption isotherms for matooke. The isoteric heat of sorption for both adsorptions and desorption isotherms increased with decreased moisture content. The total isosteric heat of sorption for matooke: adsorption isotherm ranged from 4,586 – 2,386 kJ/kg and desorption isotherm from 18,194– 2,391 kJ/kg for equilibrium moisture content from 0.3 – 0.01 (db) respectively. The minimum energy required for drying matooke from 80 – 10% (wb) is 8,124 kJ/kg of water removed. Implying that the minimum energy required for drying of 1 kg of fresh matooke from 80 - 10% (wb) is 5,793 kJ. The drying of matooke takes place in three steps: the warm-up and the two falling rate periods. The drying rate constant for all processing parameters ranged from 5,793 kJ and effective diffusivity ranged from 1.5E-10 - 8.27E-10 m2/s. The activation energy (Ea) for matooke was 16.3kJ/mol (1,605 kJ/kg). Comparing the activation energy (Ea) with the net isosteric heat of sorption for desorption isotherm (qst) (1,297.62) at 0.1 (kg water/kg dry matter), indicated that Ea was higher than qst suggesting that moisture molecules travel in liquid form in matooke slices. The total color difference (ΔE*) between the fresh and dry samples, was lowest for effect of thickness of 7 mm, followed by air velocity of 6 m/s, and then drying air temperature at 70˚C. The drying system controlled by set surface product temperature, reduced the drying time by 50% compared to that of a drying system controlled by set air drying temperature. The processing parameters did not have a significant effect on physicochemical and quality attributes, suggesting that any drying air temperature can be used in the initial stages of drying as long as the product temperature does not exceed gelatinization temperature of matooke (72˚C). The optimum processing parameters for single-layer drying of matooke are: thickness = 3 mm, air temperatures 70˚C, dew point temperature 18˚C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode. From practical point of view it is recommended that for commercial processing of matooke, to employ multi-layer drying of loading capacity equal or less than 7 kg/m², thickness 3 mm, air temperatures 70˚C, dew point temperature 18˚C and air velocity 6 m/s overflow mode.

Survey of Agricultural Practices and Alternatives to Pesticide Use to Conserve Water Resources in the Mojanda Watershed, Ecuador

Agriculture in the Mojanda Watershed is facing rainfall reductions caused by climate change. Reductions of water availability in the Watershed are also due to constant extension of the agricultural activities into the páramo ecosystem above 3000m a.s.l., with this ecosystem having immanently important functions in the local water balance. The application of pesticides threatens the quality of water and with less precipitation contaminations will further concentrate in the outflow. To analyze problems associated with agricultural practices in the area a questionnaire about agricultural practices (28) was conducted and fields (20) were surveyed for pests and diseases with a focus on potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), tree tomatoes (Solanum betaceum Cav.) and peas (Pisum sativum L.). Potatoes were infected to a low degree with Phytophthora infestans and according to the farmers the Andean potato weevil (Premnotrypes spec.) caused biggest losses. To combat the weevil the soils are disinfected with toxic Carbofuran (WHO Class 1B). Tree tomatoes showed symptoms of various fungal diseases. Most important was Fusarium solani causing the branches to rot and Anthracnosis (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) causing the fruits to rot. Fungicide applications were correspondingly high. Peas were only minorly affected by Ascochyta blight (Mycosphaerella pinodes) and a root rot. Overall 19 active ingredients were applied of which fungicide Mancozeb (WHO class table 5) and insecticide Carbofuran (WHO Class 1B) were applied the most. Approved IPM methods are advised to reduce pesticide use. For tree tomatoes regular cutting of branches infected with F. solani and regular collection and disposal of infected fruits with Anthracnosis are advised. For potatoes plastic barriers around the fields prevent the Andean potato weevil from laying eggs thus reducing infestation with the larvae in the tubers. Local bioinsecticide “Biol” seems effective and without harm to the environment, although not used by many farmers. Organic fertilization promises to restore decreasing soil fertility, water holding capacity and reduce erosion. The here presented alternatives and strategies to reduce pesticide use pose an opportunity to preserve the water resources of the region.

Wastewater Treatment Project for Palma Soriano, Cuba: Assessment of Cultural and Ecological Conditions

The Palma Project is an experiment in the use of cultural identity as a social trigger to address ecological degradation. The research methodology draws from environmental, social and urban analyses to unveil the best strategy to address the ecological, river restoration and water treatment challenges in Berkeley, California’s “Sister City” in southeast Cuba, Palma Soriano. The objective is to provide a better quality of life and to create new opportunities for the local community to reconnect with natural cycles of water and the cultivation of their own land. The project aim is to promote the strength and capacity of local communities to protect their own environment based upon a master plan, which includes natural wastewater treatment, reforestation, urban agriculture and the facilitation and utilization of a public space bordering the major river which flows by Palma Soriano, the Cauto. This project will contribute and produce healthy water recycling for Palma, provide a potable water source for the city, encourage ecological restoration of the riparian zone of the Cauto, and provide new opportunities for food production. It is designed to preserve the cultural identity of the local community, and to restore the essential balance between the community’s need to sustain both itself and the natural environment.

Water for Food: Feeding what?

Key Findings: “Water for food” is not necessarily synonymous with “water for food security. Countries with similar geological conditions face very different geopolitical realities; national water policies and agricultural motivations reflect this. Water policies and research should seek to understand “water for food” and its connections with economics, the environment, and securities more broadly

Water Resource Pollution and Impacts on the local livelihood: A case study of Beas River in Kullu District, India

The rivers are considered as the life line of any country since they make water available for our domestic, industrial and recreational functions. The quality of river water signifies the health status and hygienic aspects of a particular region, but the quality of these life lines is continuously deteriorating due to discharge of sewage, garbage and industrial effluents into them. Thrust on water demand has increased manifolds due to the increased population, therefore tangible efforts to make the water sources free from pollution is catching attention all across the globe. This paper attempts to highlight the trends in water quality change of River Beas, right from Manali to Larji in India. This is an important river in the state of Himachal Pradesh and caters to the need of water for Manali and Kullu townships, besides other surrounding rural areas. The Manali-Larji Beas river stretch is exposed to the flow of sewage, garbage and muck resulting from various project activities, thereby making it vulnerable to pollution. In addition, the influx of thousands of tourists to these towns also contributes to the pollution load by their recreational and other tourist related activities. Pollution of this river has ultimately affected the livelihood of local population in this region. Hence, water quality monitoring was carried out for the said stretch between January, 2010 and January, 2012 at 15 various locations on quarterly basis, right from the upstream of Manali town and up to downstream of Larji dam. Temperature, color, odor, D.O. , pH, BOD, TSS, TC and FC has been the parameters that were studied. This study gives the broad idea about the characteristics of water at locations in the said river stretch, and suggestions for improving water quality and livelihood of local population in this particular domain.

Indigenous Knowledge (IK) of Water Resources Management in West Sumatra, Indonesia

This study was aim to describe the indigenous knowledge of farmers at Nagari Padang laweh Malalo (NPLM) and their adaptability to climate change. Not only the water scarcity is feared, but climate change is also affecting their food security. Local food security can be achieved if biodiversity in their surrounding area is suitable to the local needs. The study was conducted by using Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) such as observation and discussion. The combination of in depth interview, life history, semi structure questionnaire, pictures, mapping and expert interviews was implemented. Data was analyzed by using MAXQDA 10 and F4 audio analysis software. The result shows awareness of the people and scarcity of water conditions has allowed the people of NPLM to face this challenge with wisdom. Aia adat (water resources controlled and regulate by custom) is one of their strategies to distribute the water. The general rule is that irrigation will flow from 6 pm – 6 am regularly to all farm land under supervision of kapalo banda. When rains occur, water resources can be used during the day without special supervision. They were used traditional knowledge to manage water resources for their land and daily usage. This study may be helpful for researcher and other farmers in different region to learn encounter water scarcity.

Connecting the Water and Carbon Cycles for the Generation of Food Security and Ecosystem Services

Water scarcity and food insecurity are pervasive issues in the developing world and are also intrinsically linked to one another. Through the connection of the water cycle and the carbon cycle this study illustrates that synergistic benefits can be realized by small scale farmers through the implementation of waste water irrigated agroforestry. The WaNuLCAS model is employed using La Huerta agroforestry site in Texcoco, South Central Mexico, as the basis for parameterization. The results of model simulations depicting scenarios of water scarcity and waste water irrigation clearly show that the addition of waste water greatly increases the agroforestry system’s generation of crop yields, above- and below-ground biomass, soil organic matter and carbon storage potential. This increase in carbon sequestration by the system translates into better local food security, diversified household income through payments for ecosystem services and contributes to the mitigation of global climate change.

Drinking water issues in Rural India: Need for stakeholders’ participation in Water resources management

Water is the very essential livelihood for mankind. The United Nations suggest that each person needs 20-50 litres of water a day to ensure basic needs of drinking, cooking and cleaning. It was also endorsed by the Indian National Water Policy 2002, with the provision that adequate safe drinking water facilities should be provided to the entire population both in urban and in rural areas. About 1.42 million rural habitations in India are affected by chemical contamination. The provision of clean drinking water has been given priority in the Constitution of India, in Article 47 conferring the duty of providing clean drinking water and improving public health standards to the State. Excessive dependence of ground water results in depletion of ground water, water contamination and water borne diseases. Thus, access to safe and reliable water supply is one of the serious concerns in rural water supply programme. Though government takes certain serious steps in addressing the drinking water issues in rural areas, still there is a huge gap between demand and supply. The Draft National Water Policy 2012 also states that Water quality and quantity are interlinked and need to be managed in an integrated manner and with Stakeholder participation. Water Resources Management aims at optimizing the available natural water flows, including surface water and groundwater, to satisfy competing needs. The World Bank also emphasizes on managing water resources, strengthening institutions, identifying and implementing measures of improving water governance and increasing the efficiency of water use. Therefore stakeholders’ participation is viewed important in managing water resources at different levels and range. This paper attempts to reflect up on portray the drinking water issues in rural India, and highlights the significance of Integrated Water Resource Management as the significant part of Millennium Development Goals, and Stakeholders’ participation in water resources management.

Wastewater usage in urban and peri-urban agricultural production systems: scenarios from India

The role urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) plays in reducing urban poverty and ensuring environmental sustainability was recognized by the Millennium Development Goals (MGDs). India is the world’s largest democratic nation with a population of 1.2 billion. The rapid urbanization and high proportion of people below the poverty line along with higher migration to urban areas make India vulnerable to food crisis and urbanization of poverty. Ensuring jobs and food security among urban poor is a major challenge in India. The role of UPA can be well explained and understood in this context. This paper focuses on the current situation of UPA production in India with special attention to wastewater irrigation. This question is being posed about the various human health risks from wastewater irrigation which are faced by farmers and labourers, and, secondly by consumers. The possible health hazards involve microbial pathogens as well as helminth (intestinal parasites). Based on primary and secondary data, this paper attempts to confirm that UPA is one of the best options to address increasing urban food demand and can serve to complement rural supply chains and reduce ecological food prints in India. “Good practice urban and peri-urban agriculture” necessitates an integrated approach with suitable risk reduction mechanisms to improve the efficiency and safety of UPA production.

From Market- to Development Orientation - The Trade Aspect of Food Security and Agriculture

Trade rules are suggested to be one of the reasons for the hunger in the world and environmental damage. As current trade rules encourage market orientation and therefore specialization and industrialization of agriculture, which has as side effects rural hunger and environmental damage, there is room for improvement in the international trade regime. One main finding of Nexus Foundations' work in Geneva is a possible new orientation for agricultural and food markets – an orientation on development, rather than purely on markets. This development orientation consists of several elements from development of soil fertility to local markets and consumer relatedness. Since the Bali Ministerial in 2013, the WTO has set up a four year work programme on the issue of food security related to food reserves. This opens the chance to discuss broader food security issues in the realm of trade negotiations.