Differential suppression by protease inhibitors and cytokines of apoptosis induced by wild-type p53 and cytotoxic agents.

Apoptosis induced in myeloid leukemic cells by wild-type p53 was suppressed by different cleavage-site directed protease inhibitors, which inhibit interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme-like, granzyme B and cathepsins B and L proteases. Apoptosis was also suppressed by the serine and cysteine protease inhibitor N-tosyl-L-phenylalanine chloromethylketone (TPCK) [corrected], but not by other serine or cysteine protease inhibitors including N alpha-p-tosyl-L-lysine chloromethylketone (TLCK), E64, pepstatin A, or chymostatin. Protease inhibitors suppressed induction of apoptosis by gamma-irradiation and cycloheximide but not by doxorubicin, vincristine, or withdrawal of interleukin 3 from interleukin 3-dependent 32D non-malignant myeloid cells. Induction of apoptosis in normal thymocytes by gamma-irradiation or dexamethasone was also suppressed by the cleavage-site directed protease inhibitors, but in contrast to the myeloid leukemic cells apoptosis in thymocytes was suppressed by TLCK but not by TPCK. The results indicate that (i) inhibitors of interleukin-1 beta-converting enzyme-like proteases and some other protease inhibitors suppressed induction of apoptosis by wild-type p53 and certain p53-independent pathways of apoptosis; (ii) the protease inhibitors together with the cytokines interleukin 6 and interferon-gamma or the antioxidant butylated hydroxyanisole gave a cooperative protection against apoptosis; (iii) these protease inhibitors did not suppress induction of apoptosis by some cytotoxic agents or by viability-factor withdrawal from 32D cells, whereas these pathways of apoptosis were suppressed by cytokines; (iv) there are cell type differences in the proteases involved in apoptosis; and (v) there are multiple pathways leading to apoptosis that can be selectively induced and suppressed by different agents.

RIP and FADD: two "death domain"-containing proteins can induce apoptosis by convergent, but dissociable, pathways.

With use of the yeast two-hybrid system, the proteins RIP and FADD/MORT1 have been shown to interact with the "death domain" of the Fas receptor. Both of these proteins induce apoptosis in mammalian cells. Using receptor fusion constructs, we provide evidence that the self-association of the death domain of RIP by itself is sufficient to elicit apoptosis. However, both the death domain and the adjacent alpha-helical region of RIP are required for the optimal cell killing induced by the overexpression of this gene. By contrast, FADD's ability to induce cell death does not depend on crosslinking. Furthermore, RIP and FADD appear to activate different apoptotic pathways since RIP is able to induce cell death in a cell line that is resistant to the apoptotic effects of Fas, tumor necrosis factor, and FADD. Consistent with this, a dominant negative mutant of FADD, lacking its N-terminal domain, blocks apoptosis induced by RIP but not by FADD. Since both pathways are blocked by CrmA, the interleukin 1 beta converting enzyme family protease inhibitor, these results suggest that FADD and RIP can act along separable pathways that nonetheless converge on a member of the interleukin 1 beta converting enzyme family of cysteine proteases.

Differential inhibition of the Fas- and granule-mediated cytolysis pathways by the orthopoxvirus cytokine response modifier A/SPI-2 and SPI-1 protein.

Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are important effectors of antiviral immunity, and they induce target cell death either by secretion of cytoplasmic granules containing perforin and granzymes or by signaling through the Fas cell surface antigen. Although it is not known whether the granule-mediated and Fas-mediated cytolytic mechanisms share common components, proteinase activity has been implicated as an important feature of both pathways. The orthopoxviruses cowpox virus and rabbitpox virus each encode three members of the serpin family of proteinase inhibitors, designated SPI-1, SPI-2, and SPI-3. Of these, SPI-2 (also referred to as cytokine response modifier A in cowpox virus) has been shown to inhibit the proteolytic activity of both members of the interleukin 1 beta converting enzyme family and granzyme B. We report here that cells infected with cowpox or rabbitpox viruses exhibit resistance to cytolysis by either cytolytic mechanism. Whereas mutation of the cytokine response modifier A/SPI-2 gene was necessary to relieve inhibition of Fasmediated cytolysis, in some cell types mutation of SPI-1, in addition to cytokine response modifier A/SPI-2, was necessary to completely abrogate inhibition. In contrast, viral inhibition of granule-mediated killing was unaffected by mutation of cytokine response modifier A/SPI-2 alone, and it was relieved only when both the cytokine response modifier A/SPI-2 and SPI-1 genes were inactivated. These results suggest that an interleukin 1 beta converting enzyme-like enzymatic activity is involved in both killing mechanisms and indicate that two viral proteins, SPI-1 and cytokine response modifier A/SPI-2, are necessary to inhibit both cytolysis pathways.

Purification and cDNA cloning of a second apoptosis-related cysteine protease that cleaves and activates sterol regulatory element binding proteins.

We have purified from hamster liver a second cysteine protease that cleaves and activates sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs). cDNA cloning revealed that this enzyme is the hamster equivalent of Mch3, a human enzyme that is related to the interleukin 1beta converting enzyme. We call this enzyme Mch3/SCA-2. It is 54% identical to hamster CPP32/SCA-1, a cysteine protease that was earlier shown to cleave SREBPs at a conserved Asp between the basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper domain and the membrane attachment domain. This cleavage liberates an NH2-terminal fragment of approximately 460 amino acids that activates transcription of genes encoding the low density lipoprotein receptor and enzymes of cholesterol synthesis. Mch3/SCA-2 and CPP32/SCA-I are synthesized as inactive 30-35 kDa precursors that are thought to be cleaved during apoptosis to generate active fragments of approximately 20 and approximately 10 kDa. The current data lend further support to the notion that SREBPs are cleaved and activated as part of the program in programmed cell death.

The contrasting roles of ICE family proteases and interleukin-1beta in apoptosis induced by trophic factor withdrawal and by copper/zinc superoxide dismutase down-regulation.

We compare here the mechanisms of apoptotic death of PC12 cells induced by down-regulation of Cu2+,Zn2+ superoxide dismutase (SOD1) and withdrawal of trophic support (serum/nerve growth factor). Our previous results indicated that the initiating causes of death are different in each paradigm. However, bcl-2 rescues cells in either paradigm, suggesting common downstream elements to the cell death pathway. To determine whether the ICE [interleukin 1beta converting enzyme] family of proteases, which is required for apoptosis on trophic factor withdrawal, is also required for apoptosis induced by oxidative stress, we have developed a novel peptide inhibitor that mimics the common catalytic site of these enzymes and thereby blocks their access to substrates. This differs from the more usual pseudosubstrate approach to enzyme inhibition. Blockade of ICE family proteases by either this inhibitor or by a permeant competitive ICE family antagonist rescues PC12 cells from apoptotic death following apoptosis induced by down-regulation of SOD1, as well as from trophic factor/nerve growth factor deprivation. SOD1 down-regulation results in an increase in interleukin 1beta (IL- 1beta) production by the cells, and cell death under these conditions can be prevented by either blocking antibodies against IL-1beta or the IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ralpha). In contrast, trophic factor withdrawal does not increase IL-1beta secretion, and the blocking antibody failed to protect PC12 cells from trophic factor withdrawal, whereas the receptor antagonist was only partially protective at very high concentrations. There were substantial differences in the concentrations of pseudosubstrate inhibitors which rescued cells from SOD1 down-regulation and trophic factor deprivation. These results suggest the involvement of different members of the ICE family, different substrates, or both in the two different initiating causes of cell death.

Cloning and expression of apoptosis inhibitory protein homologs that function to inhibit apoptosis and/or bind tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors.

Baculovirus inhibitors of apoptosis (IAPs) act in insect cells to prevent cell death. Here we describe three mammalian homologs of IAP, MIHA, MIHB, and MIHC, and a Drosophila IAP homolog, DIHA. Each protein bears three baculovirus IAP repeats and an N-terminal ring finger motif. Apoptosis mediated by interleukin 1beta converting enzyme (ICE), which can be inhibited by Orgyia pseudotsugata nuclear polyhedrosis virus IAP (OpIAP) and cowpox virus crmA, was also inhibited by MIHA and MIHB. As MIHB and MIHC were able to bind to the tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factors TRAF1 and TRAF2 in yeast two-hybrid assays, these results suggest that IAP proteins that inhibit apoptosis may do so by regulating signals required for activation of ICE-like proteases.

Suppression of apoptosis by basement membrane requires three-dimensional tissue organization and withdrawal from the cell cycle.

The basement membrane (BM) extracellular matrix induces differentiation and suppresses apoptosis in mammary epithelial cells, whereas cells lacking BM lose their differentiated phenotype and undergo apoptosis. Addition of purified BM components, which are known to induce beta-casein expression, did not prevent apoptosis, indicating that a more complex BM was necessary. A comparison of culture conditions where apoptosis would or would not occur allowed us to relate inhibition of apoptosis to a complete withdrawal from the cell cycle, which was observed only when cells acquired a three-dimensional alveolar structure in response to BM. In the absence of this morphology, both the GI cyclin kinase inhibitor p21/WAF-1 and positive proliferative signals including c-myc and cyclin DI were expressed and the retinoblastoma protein (Rb) continued to be hyperphosphorylated. When we overexpressed either c-myc in quiescent cells or p21 when cells were still cycling, apoptosis was induced. In the absence of three-dimensional alveolar structures, mammary epithelial cells secrete a number of factors including transforming growth factor alpha and tenascin, which when added exogenously to quiescent cells induced expression of c-myc and interleukin-beta1-converting enzyme (ICE) mRNA and led to apoptosis. These experiments demonstrate that a correct tissue architecture is crucial for long-range homeostasis, suppression of apoptosis, and maintenance of differentiated phenotype.

Proteolytic activation of the cell death protease Yama/CPP32 by granzyme B.

The serine protease granzyme B, which is secreted by cytotoxic cells, is one of the major effectors of apoptosis in susceptible targets. To examine the apoptotic mechanism of granzyme B, we have analyzed its effect on purified proteins that are thought to be components of death pathways inherent to cells. We demonstrate that granzyme B processes interleukin 1beta-converting enzyme (ICE) and the ICE-related protease Yama (also known as CPP32 or apopain) by limited proteolysis. Processing of ICE does not lead to activation. However, processing by granzyme B leads directly to the activation of Yama, which is now able to bind inhibitors and cleave the substrate poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase whose proteolysis is a marker of apoptosis initiated by several other stimuli. Thus ICE-related proteases can be activated by serine proteases that possess the correct specificity. Activation of pro-Yama by granzyme B is within the physiologic range. Thus the cytotoxic effect of granzyme B can be explained by its activation of an endogenous protease component of a programmed cell death pathway.

Studies of the lamin proteinase reveal multiple parallel biochemical pathways during apoptotic execution.

Although specific proteinases play a critical role in the active phase of apoptosis, their substrates are largely unknown. We previously identified poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) as an apoptosis-associated substrate for proteinase(s) related to interleukin 1 beta-converting enzyme (ICE). Now we have used a cell-free system to characterize proteinase(s) that cleave the nuclear lamins during apoptosis. Lamin cleavage during apoptosis requires the action of a second ICE-like enyzme, which exhibits kinetics of cleavage and a profile of sensitivity to specific inhibitors that is distinct from the PARP proteinase. Thus, multiple ICE-like enzymes are required for apoptotic events in these cell-free extracts. Inhibition of the lamin proteinase with tosyllysine "chloromethyl ketone" blocks nuclear apoptosis prior to the packaging of condensed chromatin into apoptotic bodies. Under these conditions, the nuclear DNA is fully cleaved to a nucleosomal ladder. Our studies reveal that the lamin proteinase and the fragmentation nuclease function in independent parallel pathways during the final stages of apoptotic execution. Neither pathway alone is sufficient for completion of nuclear apoptosis. Instead, the various activities cooperate to drive the disassembly of the nucleus.

Tumor necrosis factor-induced apoptosis is mediated by a CrmA-sensitive cell death pathway.

We report here that the activation of the interleukin 1 beta (IL-1 beta)-converting enzyme (ICE) family is likely to be one of the crucial events of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) cytotoxicity. The cowpox virus CrmA protein, a member of the serpin superfamily, inhibits the enzymatic activity of ICE and ICE-mediated apoptosis. HeLa cells overexpressing crmA are resistant to apoptosis induced by Ice but not by Ich-1, another member of the Ice/ced-3 family of genes. We found that the CrmA-expressing HeLa cells are resistant to TNF-alpha/cycloheximide (CHX)-induced apoptosis. Induction of apoptosis in HeLa cells by TNF-alpha/CHX is associated with secretion of mature IL-1 beta, suggesting that an IL-1 beta-processing enzyme, most likely ICE itself, is activated by TNF-alpha/CHX stimulation. These results suggest that one or more members of the ICE family sensitive to CrmA inhibition are activated and play a critical role in apoptosis induced by TNF.

Identification of endothelin 1 and big endothelin 1 in secretory vesicles isolated from bovine aortic endothelial cells.

Vesicles containing endothelin 1 (ET-1) were isolated from bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs) by fractionation of homogenates on sucrose density gradients by ultracentrifugation. The vesicles were localized at the 1.0/1.2 M sucrose interface using a specific anti-ET-1-(16-21) RIA. Identification of ET-1 and big ET-1 in this fraction was confirmed by HPLC analysis combined with RIA. Morphological examination of the ET-1-enriched fraction by electron microscopy identified clusters of vesicles approximately 100 nm in diameter. Immunostaining of ultrathin cryosections prepared from the vesicle fraction for ET-1 or big ET-1 showed clusters of 15-nm gold particles attached to or within vesicles. Immunofluorescence staining of whole BAECs using a specific ET-1-(16-21) IgG purified by affinity chromatography revealed punctate granulation of the cell cytoplasm viewed under light microscopy. This distinct pattern of staining was shown by confocal light microscopy to be intracellular. Immunofluorescence staining of whole cells with a polyclonal antiserum for big ET-1-(22-39) showed a defined perinuclear localization of precursor molecule. Hence, several different approaches have demonstrated that ET-1 and big ET-1 are localized within intracellular vesicles in BAECs, suggesting that these subcellular compartments are an important site for processing of big ET-1 by endothelin-converting enzyme.

Custos de procedimentos de saúde e associação com nível de atividade física e estado nutricional de idosos hipertensos e diabéticos: análise do Estudo SABE - Saúde, Bem-estar e Envelhecimento, 2010

Introdução O nível de atividade física (NAF) insuficiente e estado nutricional (EN) inadequado conferem risco de desenvolvimento de hipertensão arterial e diabete, bem como dificultam o controle destas doenças. Assim, infere-se que os custos despendidos pelo SUS com medicamentos, internações e consultas de hipertensos e diabéticos apresentem relação inversa com NAF, incluindo a prática de caminhada e EN. Entretanto, estudos epidemiológicos que descrevam estes custos e analisem essas associações na população idosa são inexistentes no Brasil, o que dificulta a fundamentação para a implementação de políticas publicas para a economia de recursos. Objetivo Descrever os custos com procedimentos de saúde de idosos hipertensos e diabéticos e verificar qual a sua associação com NAF e EN, segundo sexo e grupos etários. Métodos A amostra foi constituída por 806 idosos com autorreferência à hipertensão e/ou diabete ( 60 anos) residentes no município de São PauloSP, participantes das três coortes do Estudo Saúde, Bem-estar e Envelhecimento SABE - em 2010. A variável dependente custo total anual (em Reais), foi estimada com base nos dados autorreferidos sobre uso de medicamentos, uso dos serviços ambulatoriais e internações hospitalares, retroativos a um ano da coleta de dados. A variáveis explanatórias: i) NAF foi estimada a partir de entrevista utilizando o International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ, versão curta), classificando os idosos segundo duração da realização de atividades físicas moderada, em ativos ( 150 minutos/semana) e insuficientemente ativos (< 150 minutos/semana); ii) Prática de caminhada, categorizada segundo frequência semanal: a) 4 dias/ semana; b) 1 a 3 dias/semana; c) não caminha. iii) EN, identificado pelo índice de massa corporal (IMC), classificando os idosos em dois grupos: a) IMC < 28 kg/ m²; b) IMC 28 kg/ m² (excesso de peso); as variáveis de controle foram o sexo, grupos etários (a. 70 anos; b. 65 a 69 anos; c. 60 a 64 anos); estado civil (a. casado; b. outros) e, escolaridade (a. sem escolaridade; b. 1 ano). A descrição dos custos segundo as NAF e EN foi representada pelos valores de média e IC95 por cento , mediana e P25 P75, valores mínimos e máximos. Modelos de regressão logística múltipla foram empregados para analisar as associações entre variáveis dependentes e explanatórias. O nível de significância foi estabelecido em 5 por cento e todas as análises foram realizadas considerando amostras complexas, por meio do software Stata, 13.0. 9 Resultados: A média de custo total anual por pessoa foi de R$ 732,54 e a soma dos custos relativa a 12 meses para os 806 idosos foi de R$ 609.587,20, sempre superiores para idosos em excesso de peso, com NAF insuficiente e para idosos que não caminham. Idosos em excesso de peso apresentaram chance 50 por cento superior de estarem no grupo de maior custo total anual (OR 1.49, IC95 por cento 1.01 2.18) e mais de 70 por cento superior de maior custo com medicamentos (OR 1.71, IC95 por cento 1.18 2.47). A ausência de caminhada significou a chance superior para maiores custos anuais com medicamentos (OR 1.63, IC95 por cento 1.06 2.51) e custos totais (OR 1.82, IC95 por cento 1.17 2.81). Todas as análises ajustadas por sexo e idade. O NAF não se associou aos custos totais e custo com medicamentos (p>0.05). Conclusão: Os custos para o controle de HAS e DM em idosos são altos e se associam inversamente à prática de caminhada e ao estado nutricional, especialmente em relação ao custo com o uso de medicamentos antihipertensivos e hipoglicemiantes.

Efeitos da diabetes mellitus e hipertensão arterial sobre a audição de idosos

Introdução: Estudos têm demonstrado que doenças crônicas e alterações metabólicas podem atuar como fator de aceleração na degeneração do sistema auditivo decorrente da idade. Todavia, os estudos sobre a associação entre a perda auditiva com o diabetes mellitus (DM) e com a hipertensão arterial (HA) em idosos mostraram conclusões controversas. Sendo assim, novos estudos sobre este assunto são necessários, a fim de esclarecer o efeito destas doenças crônicas sobre o sistema auditivo. Objetivos: Comparar uma audiometria inicial (A1) com uma audiometria sequencial (A2) realizada com um intervalo de 3 a 4 anos em uma população de idosos portadores de DM e/ou HA; realizar um estudo comparativo entre quatro grupos de idosos: grupo controle (GC), formado por idosos sem alterações crônicas, grupo de idosos portadores de DM; grupo de idosos portadores de HA, grupo de idosos portadores de DM e HA. Métodos: Foi realizado um levantamento em 901 prontuários do Estudo Longitudinal de Saúde Auditiva do Adulto (ELSAA), de indivíduos atendidos no Hospital Universitário (HU) da Universidade de São Paulo, no período de 2009 a 2015. De acordo com os critérios de inclusão, foram selecionados 100 indivíduos para participarem da presente pesquisa. A avaliação inicial (A1), constando de anamnese, audiometria tonal e imitânciometria foram utilizadas e foi feita uma nova avaliação audiológica (A2) após o período de 3 a 4 anos. Os participantes foram distribuídos em quatro grupos: 20 indivíduos portadores de DM (grupo DM), 20 indivíduos portadores de HA (grupo HA), 20 indivíduos portadores de DM e HA (grupo DMHA) e 40 indivíduos não portadores de DM nem de HA (GC). Para cada grupo estudo (HA, DM e DMHA), foram selecionados indivíduos (entre os 40 do GC) de forma a parear as características referentes a idade e sexo. Foram utilizados os testes estatísticos ANOVA, teste exato de Fisher e Kruskal-Wallis, com nível de significância de 0,05. Foi também calculada a odds ratio, com intervalo de confiança de 95%. Resultados: Não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre as orelhas para nenhum dos grupos; sendo assim, as orelhas direita e esquerda foram agrupadas para as outras comparações. Na comparação da média de aumento anual dos limiares auditivos da primeira avaliação A1 com a segunda avaliação A2 entre os grupos, pode-se observar que para o grupo DM, não houve diferença estatisticamente significante para nenhuma das frequências avaliadas, quando comparado ao seu respectivo controle; para o grupo HA foram observadas diferenças significantes a partir de 4kHz, bem como tendência à diferença estatisticamente significante em 3 kHz, quando comparado a seu respectivo controle. Já para o grupo DMHA, quando comparado a seu grupo controle, foram observadas diferenças significantes nas frequências de 500, 2k, 3k e 8kHz, além de tendência à diferença estatisticamente significante em 4k e 6kHz. Considerando-se os casos novos de perda auditiva, pode-se observar que houve diferença estatisticamente significante apenas para o grupo HA, para as frequências altas. Verificou-se também que, para as frequências altas (3k a 8kHz), os números de casos novos de perda auditiva foram sempre maiores nos grupos estudo quando comparados aos seus respectivos controles. Na comparação das médias dos limiares auditivos, tanto na avaliação A1 quanto na avaliação A2, observou-se que os grupos estudo (DM, HA e DMHA) apresentaram limiares auditivos mais prejudicados, quando comparados a seus respectivos grupos controle. Na comparação entre os grupos apenas para a avaliação A2, pode-se observar que para as frequências altas, houve associação estatisticamente significante entre apresentar as condições clínicas (DM, HA e DMHA) e a presença de perda auditiva. A OR para DM foi de 5,57 (2,9-14,65), para HA foi de 4,2 (1,35-13,06) e para DMHA foi de 5,72 (1,85-17,64). Conclusão: Verificou-se que os idosos portadores de DM, HA ou ambos apresentaram limiares auditivos mais rebaixados quando comparados a seus respectivos grupos controle, principalmente nas altas frequências, o que sugere que estas patologias podem ter um efeito deletério sobre a audição. Além disso, nota-se que o grupo HA apresentou limiares auditivos piores para a maioria das frequências e foi o que apresentou maior queda dos limiares auditivos no segmento de 3 a 4 anos, quando comparado aos outros dois grupos estudo (DMHA e DM), sugerindo que dentre as três condições estudadas, a hipertensão parece ser a que teve maior influência sobre a audição

Endothelin axis expression is markedly different in the two main subtypes of renal cell carcinoma

BACKGROUND. The endothelin axis has been implicated in cancer growth, angiogenesis, and metastasis, but to the authors' knowledge the expression of endothelin genes has not been defined in renal cell carcinoma (RCC). METHODS. Tissue specimens were harvested from both normal and tumor-affected regions at the time of radical nephrectomy from 35 patients with RCC (22 with clear cell RCC [ccRCC] and 13 with papillary RCC [PRCC]). Real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction analysis determined the expression profile of the preproendothelins (PPET-1, PPET-2, and PPET-3), the endothelin receptors (ETA and ETB), and the endothelin-converting enzymes (ECE-1 and ECE-2). RESULTS. PPET-1 was found to be up-regulated in ccRCC tumor specimens and down-regulated in PRCC tumor specimens. ETA was significantly down-regulated in PRCC tumor specimens. ECE-1 was expressed in all tissue specimens at comparable levels, with moderate but significant elevation in normal tissue specimens associated with PRCC. Of the other genes, PPET-2 and ETB were expressed in all tissue specimens and no differences were observed between tumor subtypes or tumor-affected and normal tissue specimens, whereas PPET-3 and ECE-2 were present in all tissue specimens but were barely detectable. CONCLUSIONS. The endothelin axis was expressed differently in the two main subtypes of RCC and appeared to match macroscopic features commonly observed in these tumors (i.e., high expression of PPET-I in hypervascular ccRCC contrasted against low PPET-1 and ETA expression in hypovascular PRCC). The presence of ECE-1 mRNA in these tissue specimens suggested that active endothelin ligands were present, indicating endothelin axis activity was elevated in ccRCC compared with normal kidney, but impaired in PRCC. The current study provided further evidence that it is not appropriate to consider ccRCC and PRCC indiscriminately in regard to treatment. (C) 2004 American Cancer Society.