CO2 Emissions, GDP and trade : a panel cointegration approach

This paper examines the relationships among per capita CO2 emissions, per capita GDP and international trade based on panel data sets spanning the period 1960-2008: one for 150 countries and the others for sub-samples comprising OECD and Non-OECD economies. We apply panel unit root and cointegration tests, and estimate a panel error correction model. The results from the error correction model suggest that there are long-term relationships between the variables for the whole sample and for Non-OECD countries. Finally, Granger causality tests show that there is bi-directional short-term causality between per capita GDP and international trade for the whole sample and between per capita GDP and CO2 emissions for OECD countries

Measuring CO2 emissions induced by online and brick-and-mortar retailing

We develop a method for empirically measuring the difference in carbon footprint between traditional and online retailing (���e-tailing���) from entry point to a geographical area to consumer residence. The method only requires data on the locations of brick-and-mortar stores, online delivery points, and residences of the region���s population, and on the goods transportation networks in the studied region. Such data are readily available in most countries, so the method is not country or region specific. The method has been evaluated using data from the Dalecarlia region in Sweden, and is shown to be robust to all assumptions made. In our empirical example, the results indicate that the average distance from consumer residence to a brick-and-mortar retailer is 48.54 km in the studied region, while the average distance to an online delivery point is 6.7 km. The results also indicate that e-tailing increases the average distance traveled from the regional entry point to the delivery point from 47.15 km for a brick-and-mortar store to 122.75 km for the online delivery points. However, as professional carriers transport the products in bulk to stores or online delivery points, which is more efficient than consumers��� transporting the products to their residences, the results indicate that consumers switching from traditional to e-tailing on average reduce their CO2 footprints by 84% when buying standard consumer electronics products.��

Measuring CO2 emissions induced by online and brick-and-mortar retailing

We develop a method for empirically measuring the difference in carbon footprint between traditional and online retailing (���e-tailing���) from entry point to a geographical area to consumer residence. The method only requires data on the locations of brick-and-mortar stores, online delivery points, and residences of the region���s population, and on the goods transportation networks in the studied region. Such data are readily available in most countries, so the method is not country or region specific. The method has been evaluated using data from the Dalecarlia region in Sweden, and is shown to be robust to all assumptions made. In our empirical example, the results indicate that the average distance from consumer residence to a brick-and-mortar retailer is 48.54 km in the studied region, while the average distance to an online delivery point is 6.7 km. The results also indicate that e-tailing increases the average distance traveled from the regional entry point to the delivery point from 47.15 km for a brick-and-mortar store to 122.75 km for the online delivery points. However, as professional carriers transport the products in bulk to stores or online delivery points, which is more efficient than consumers��� transporting the products to their residences, the results indicate that consumers switching from traditional to e-tailing on average reduce their CO2 footprints by 84% when buying standard consumer electronics products.��

To what extent are CO2 emissions from intra-urban shopping trips by cars affected by drivers��� travel behaviour and store location?

Transportation is seen as one of the major sources of CO2 pollutants nowadays. The impact of increased transport in retailing should not be underestimated. Most previous studies have focused on transportation and underlying trips, in general, while very few studies have addressed the specific affects that, for instance, intra-city shopping trips generate. Furthermore, most of the existing methods used to estimate emission are based on macro-data designed to generate national or regional inventory projections. There is a lack of studies using micro-data based methods that are able to distinguish between driver behaviour and the locational effects induced by shopping trips, which is an important precondition for energy efficient urban planning. The aim of this study is to implement a micro-data method to estimate and compare CO2 emission induced by intra-urban car travelling to a retail destination of durable goods (DG), and non-durable goods (NDG). We estimate the emissions from aspects of travel behaviour and store location. The study is conducted by means of a case study in the city of Borl��nge, where GPS tracking data on intra-urban car travel is collected from 250 households. We find that a behavioural change during a trip towards a CO2 optimal travelling by car has the potential to decrease emission to 36% (DG), and to 25% (NDG) of the emissions induced by car-travelling shopping trips today. There is also a potential of reducing CO2 emissions induced by intra-urban shopping trips due to poor location by 54%, and if the consumer selected the closest of 8 existing stores, the CO2 emissions would be reduced by 37% of the current emission induced by NDG shopping trips.

Extra����o com CO2 supercr��tico de ��leos essenciais de Hon-sho e Ho-sho : experimentos e modelagem

Uma das tecnologias que mais avan��ou nas ��ltimas d��cadas, como uma alternativa para as tradicionais t��cnicas de extra����o de produtos naturais, �� a t��cnica de Extra����o com Fluidos Supercr��ticos. A extra����o com fluidos supercr��ticos destacase entre os processos industriais de extra����o pela qualidade dos produtos obtidos e por n��o causar danos ambientais quando usa di��xido de carbono (CO2) no estado supercr��tico como solvente. Este trabalho teve como objetivo a realiza����o de experimentos de extra����o de ��leos essenciais com di��xido de carbono no estado supercr��tico de folhas de duas variedades da ��rvore Canforeira (Cinnamomum camphor Ness & Eberm.) conhecidas como Hon-sho e Ho-sho, a fim de determinar as melhores condi����es operacionais de processo. Os ��leos essenciais obtidos destas plantas t��m import��ncia econ��mica devido aos seus principais componentes: linalol e c��nfora. Os melhores par��metros de extra����o obtidos, quando se consideram os rendimentos de ��leo essencial, foram os seguintes: vaz��o de CO2 = 2 mL/min, temperatura = 50��C, press��o = 90 bar e di��metro de part��cula = 0,1 mm. Outro objetivo foi a obten����o das curvas de extra����o: Rendimento de ��leo essencial versus Tempo de extra����o, adequando, a partir dos dados experimentais, alguns modelos matem��ticos encontrados na literatura para descrever o comportamento destas extra����es. Dos modelos estudados o que melhor se adequou �� extra����o de ��leos essenciais de folhas foi o modelo proposto por Reverchon (1996), o qual proporcionou uma boa reprodutibilidade dos dados experimentais, mostrandose eficiente na representa����o de extra����o com fluidos supercr��ticos de ��leos essenciais de Hon-sho e Ho-sho a partir de suas folhas.

Economia ecol��gica da emiss��o antropog��nica de CO2 - uma abordagem filos��fico-cient��fica sobre a efetua����o humana alopoi��tica da Terra em escala planet��ria

O objetivo desta tese, "Economia Ecol��gica da Emiss��o Antropog��nica de CO2 ��� uma Abordagem Filos��fico-Cient��fica sobre a Efetua����o Humana Alopoi��tica da Terra em Escala Planet��ria utiliza o novo paradigma ambiental, que inclui as seguintes ferramentas te��ricas originais: �� o uso da filosofia da efetua����o de Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775-1854); �� uso da teoria da auto-organiza����o para demonstrar a exist��ncia de uma efetua����o humana alopoi��tica de dimens��es geol��gico-planet��rias; �� a articula����o das implica����es filos��fico-cient��ficas em uma via de recorr��ncia que inclui a conting��ncia, a reprocessualidade, a ��tica e a hermen��utica, al��m das abordagens e estrat��gias da interdisciplinaridade e da transdisicplinaridade; �� uma nova estrutura de abordagem emp��rica para a coleta de dados ambientais, a matriz de amostragem ambiental. Nesta abordagem �� proposto o posicionamento da Epistemologia Ambiental levando em conta o aspecto unificador sist��mico, ap��s ser realizada a cr��tica das abordagens anarquista e p��s-normal. A Economia �� posta como antiexemplo no qual a Economia tradicional (Cl��ssica, Neocl��ssica e Ambiental) �� caracterizada como uma pseudoci��ncia, a partir das suas ilus��es, dogmas, mitos, fantasias, fal��cias, falsa "lei", falsas met��foras e o abandono da ��tica e da vis��o sist��mica, sendo suas afirmativas (falsas) comparadas com os resultados das demais ci��ncias e com a situa����o real do planeta Terra, no in��cio do s��culo XXI. O contraponto da Economia tradicional �� estabelecido pela apresenta����o dos conceitos de ecodesenvolvimento, sustentabilidade, estado-est��vel, Economia Win-Win e o advento da Era Solar. A Economia Ecol��gica constitui uma nova Ci��ncia Ambiental, passando atualmente por um processo de corrup����o economicista. A apresenta����o da efetua����o humana alopoi��tica �� feita em duas principais escalas: a geol��gica e planet��ria. A efetua����o humana alopoi��tica registrada em escala geol��gica inclui as seguintes formas: paisag��stica, pedog��nica, litol��gica, geodin��mica (s��smica, vulc��nica, h��drica, massiva e erosional), fossil��fera e geoqu��mica. A efetua����o humana alopoi��tica registrada em escala planet��ria apresenta as seguintes formas: clim��tica, aster��ide-meteor��tica, da biodiversidade, aeroespacial pr��xima e extraplanet��ria. A emiss��o antropog��nica de g��s carb��nico (CO2) na atmosfera terrestre, uma emiss��o difusa e sem fronteiras geogr��ficas, �� abordada com a Economia Ecol��gica. A partir da identifica����o do aquecimento global com "a conta entr��pica devida �� era da m��quina" (Rifkin, 1992, p. 81) que a Natureza apresenta aos seres humanos, �� feita a tentativa de estabelecer um valor real do fen��meno, tendo como ferramenta cient��fica a abordagem emerg��tica. A partir da constata����o de que a efetua����o humana alopoi��tica registrada at�� o final do s��culo XX foi realizada de forma imprevista, imprudente e fora de controle e tendo em vista a emerg��ncia da Era da Terra-P��tria, no in��cio do s��culo XXI, e a necessidade de reorientar a globaliza����o em curso, alternativas para a busca da efetua����o terrestre consciente s��o apresentadas. As principais alternativas propostas para resolver (ou encaminhar a resolu����o) para a quest��o ambiental s��o as economicistas, da qualidade ambiental total (ISO 14000), as industrialistas (produ����o limpa, fator 4, fator 10 e capitalismo natural), as cient��ficas (geofisiologia e terraforming), da Economia Ecol��gica e Economia Win-Win, as pol��ticas (Pol��tica da Biosfera e Plano Marshall Global), as ��ticas, a utopia do reencantamento do Mundo e a proposta program��tica da Agenda 21. As conclus��es e interpreta����es desta tese prov��m dos resultados obtidos pelo c��lculo da emiss��o de CO2 para a atmosfera, sua emergia e valor real atrav��s de dados obtidos na Internet e da contextualiza����o destes nas propostas existentes para o encaminhamento da quest��o ambiental. A mitologia de ��caro na tentativa ambiciosa em se afastar da Natureza e o retorno �� ela na forma de uma F��nix de ressurgimento autopoi��tico, fornece a vis��o do reenvolvimento ambiental humano.

Estudo e desenvolvimento de um sensor de CO2 de baixo custo

Este trabalho descreve um estudo e desenvolvimento de um sensor de di��xido de carbono (CO2), de baixo custo, para monitoramento da qualidade do ar em ambientes climatizados. O sensor aqui proposto baseia-se na t��cnica de absor����o em infravermelho n��o dispersivo (NDIR). Este trabalho avalia alguns m��todos j�� empregados e prop��e um modelo alternativo visando uma solu����o de baixo custo que possa ser incorporada a sistemas de monitoramento e/ou condicionamento existentes, permitindo o controle do teor de CO2. A metodologia inclui o estudo dos diferentes tipos de sensores de CO2, a sele����o da t��cnica mais apropriada para medi����o, o estudo das alternativas para implementa����o da t��cnica selecionada, o desenvolvimento, testes e avalia����es da solu����o. Especificamente desenvolveu-se uma solu����o em termos de sensor de CO2 que utiliza componentes comerciais, sendo facilmente reprodut��vel e de custo reduzido. O sensor desenvolvido tem faixa de medi����o entre 330 a mais de 10000 ppm, com resolu����o estimada em torno de 20 a 30 ppm, com erro em rela����o ao padr��o menor que 10% da medi����o ou 150 ppm,o que for maior.

Negocia����es internacionais dos mecanismos de redu����o de emiss��es e seq��estro de CO2: implica����es e potencialidades para o Brasil

Na disciplina eletiva T��picos Econ��micos em Meio Ambiente conheci o assunto referente ao mercado de cr��dito de carbono. Achei o tema muito interessante. Entendi que o mundo n��o poderia deixar de avan��ar nesta dire����o. Estudei e decidi verificar quais eram as oportunidades e ou dificuldade que o Brasil poderia experimentar no contexto das negocia����es internacionais a respeito deste assunto. Este trabalho n��o tem a pretens��o e nem o prop��sito de ser prescritivo, muito mesmo tornar-se parcial a algum ponto de vista. Ele procura reunir considera����es relevantes �� cerca do tema, proferida por autoridades que est��o �� frente dos processos de negocia����o decidindo os rumos deste assunto no Brasil e no mundo, confrontando com teorias recentes a respeito. Embora as mudan��as clim��ticas do mundo sejam fatos e, portanto, pouco se discorda neste sentido, quando se estuda as suas causas, conseq����ncias e como o Brasil pode ser inserido nas oportunidades ou ser impactado pelas dificuldades deste contexto, ai sim percebe-se que h�� diverg��ncias. Investiga-se ao longo do trabalho a combina����o dos interesses internacionais que embora claramente atrelados ao aspecto econ��mico usam toda sua habilidade pol��tica fazendo uso de argumentos t��cnicos para sustentar suas posi����es. O que me pareceu mais interessante neste trabalho �� que embora ainda existam d��vidas em rela����o a muitos pontos, o bom resultado destas negocia����es ser�� regido n��o por novas t��cnicas mais sim por um amadurecimento da humanidade com o desenvolvimento da habilidade pol��tica fundamentada na ��tica. Como todo estudo, ao final tem-se mais d��vida que no in��cio do trabalho. E este n��o �� diferente. Entretanto, a conclus��o sempre traz muito da percep����o do autor e nela me dei o direito de opinar de forma discreta, por��m com a propriedade de algu��m que estudou e refletiu sobre o tema.

Avalia����o do efeito de particulados s��lidos na efici��ncia de um inibidor de corros��o recomendado para meios salinos com CO2

The main problem on the exploration activity on petroleum industry is the formation water resulted on the fields producing. The aggravating of this problem is correlated with the advancing technologies used on the petroleum extractions and on its secondary approach objecting the reobtainment of this oil. Among the main contaminants of the water formation are corrosives gases such as: O2, CO2 and H2S, some solids in suspension and dissolved salts. Concerning to those gases the CO2 is the one that produce significant damage for carbon steel on corrosion process of the petroleum and gas industries. Corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel in formation water is one of the most used agents in control of those damages. In this context, the poor investigations of carbon steel corrosion proceeding from solids in suspension is an opened field for studies. On this work the inhibitor effect of the commercial CORRTREAT 703 was evaluated on some specific solids in suspension at saline medium containing 10.000 ppm of de-aerated chloride using CO2 until non oxygen atmosphere been present. For that, quartz, calcium carbonate, magnetite and iron sulphide were subjected to this investigation as the selected solids. The effect of this inhibitor on corrosion process correlated with those specific solids, was measured using electrochemical (resistance of linear polarization and galvanic pair) and gravimetrical techniques. During all the experimental work important parameters were monitored such as: pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, instantaneous corrosion rate and galvanic current. According to the obtained results it was proved that the suspension solids calcium carbonate and iron sulphide decrease the corrosion process in higher pH medium. Meanwhile the quartz and magnetite been hardness increase corrosion by broking of the passive layer for erosion. In the other hand, the tested inhibitor in concentration of 50 ppm, showed to be effective (91%) in this corrosion process

Estudo param��trico da recupera����o de ��leo no processo de drenagem gravitacional com inje����o de CO2

The gas injection has become the most important IOR process in the United States. Furthermore, the year 2006 marks the first time the gas injection IOR production has surpassed that of steam injection. In Brazil, the installation of a petrochemical complex in the Northeast of Brazil (Bahia State) offers opportunities for the injection of gases in the fields located in the Rec��ncavo Basin. Field-scale gas injection applications have almost always been associated with design and operational difficulties. The mobility ratio, which controls the volumetric sweep, between the injected gas and displaced oil bank in gas processes, is typically unfavorable due to the relatively low viscosity of the injected gas. Furthermore, the difference between their densities results in severe gravity segregation of fluids in the reservoirs, consequently leading to poor control in the volumetric sweep. Nowadays, from the above applications of gas injection, the WAG process is most popular. However, in attempting to solve the mobility problems, the WAG process gives rise to other problems associated with increased water saturation in the reservoir including diminished gas injectivity and increased competition to the flow of oil. The low field performance of WAG floods with oil recoveries in the range of 5-10% is a clear indication of these problems. In order to find na effective alternative to WAG, the Gas Assisted Gravity Drainage (GAGD) was developed. This process is designed to take advantage of gravity force to allow vertical segregation between the injected CO2 and reservoir crude oil due to their density difference. This process consists of placing horizontal producers near the bottom of the pay zone and injecting g��s through existing vertical wells in field. Homogeneous models were used in this work which can be extrapolated to commercial application for fields located in the Northeast of Brazil. The simulations were performed in a CMG simulator, the STARS 2007.11, where some parameters and their interactions were analyzed. The results have shown that the CO2 injection in GAGD process increased significantly the rate and the final recovery of oil

Estudo da inje����o de CO2 em reservat��rios carbon��ticos de dupla-porosidade

As rochas carbon��ticas ocupam, numa vis��o global, um expressivo volume da crosta terrestre. De maneira geral, pode-se dizer que essas rochas est��o presentes nas diversas unidades litoestatigr��ficas da Terra. Os reservat��rios carbon��ticos s��o reservas naturalmente fraturadas que exigem uma abordagem diferenciada na modelagem em programas de simula����o num��rica. Os modelos de dupla porosidade s��o descritos por fun����es de tranfer��ncias que modelam o fluxo de ��leo entre matriz e fraturas. Em um reservat��rio carbon��tico naturalmente fraturado o sistema de fraturas �� determinante no escoamento de fluidos dentro da reserva. Os maiores reservat��rios carbon��ticos do mundo est��o situados no Oriente M��dio e na Am��rica do Norte. As maiores reservas de ��leo brasileiras encontradas neste tipo de reservat��rio est��o localizadas nos campos do Pr��-Sal. No Pr��-Sal, um volume significativo de di��xido de carbono �� produzido juntamente com o ��leo. A disponibilidade de um volume considerav��l de di��xido de carbono derivado da produ����o de ��leo no Pr��-Sal favorece a utiliza����o dos processos de EOR (Enhanced Oil Recovery) por inje����o de g��s. O processo de inje����o de di��xido de carbono vem sendo utilizado em uma grande quantidade de projetos pelo mundo. A afinidade existente entre o ��leo e o di��xido de carbono causa uma frente misc��vel entre as duas fases causando inchamento e vaporiza����o do ��leo dentro do reservat��rio. Para o estudo, foi utilizado um modelo base de reservat��rio de dupla-porosidade, desenvolvido pela CMG para o 6�� Projeto de Solu����es Comparativas da SPE, que modela sistemas de fraturas e de matriz e a tranfer��ncia de massa fluida entre elas, caracter��sticas de reservat��rios naturalmente fraturados. Foi feita uma an��lise da inje����o de diferentes vaz��es de di��xido de carbono no modelo base e em modelos semelhantes, com aumento e redu����o de 5 e 0.5 pontos nas propriedades de porosidade e permeabilidade da matriz, respectivamente, tendo a produ����o de ��leo como resultado. A inje����o de 25 milh��es de p��s c��bicos por dia de CO2 foi a vaz��o que obteve a melhor fator de recupera����o

An��lise param��trica do m��todo de inje����o alternada de ��gua e CO2(WAG) em reservat��rios de petr��leo

After the decline of production from natural energy of the reservoir, the methods of enhanced oil recovery, which methods result from the application of special processes such as chemical injection, miscible gases, thermal and others can be applied. The advanced recovery method with alternating - CO2 injection WAG uses the injection of water and gas, normally miscible that will come in contact with the stock oil. In Brazil with the discovery of pre-salt layer that gas gained prominence. The amount of CO2 present in the oil produced in the pre-salt layer, as well as some reservoirs is one of the challenges to be overcome in relation to sustainable production once this gas needs to be processed in some way. Many targets for CO2 are proposed by researchers to describe some alternatives to the use of CO2 gas produced such as enhanced recovery, storage depleted fields, salt caverns storage and marketing of CO2 even in plants. The largest oil discoveries in Brazil have recently been made by Petrobras in the pre -salt layer located between the states of Santa Catarina and Esp��rito Santo, where he met large volumes of light oil with a density of approximately 28 �� API, low acidity and low sulfur content. This oil that has a large amount of dissolved CO2 and thus a pioneering solution for the fate of this gas comes with an advanced recovery. The objective of this research is to analyze which parameters had the greatest influence on the enhanced recovery process. The simulations were performed using the "GEM" module of the Computer Modelling Group, with the aim of studying the advanced recovery method in question. For this work, semi - synthetic models were used with reservoir and fluid data that can be extrapolated to practical situations in the Brazilian Northeast. The results showed the influence of the alternating injection of water and gas on the recovery factor and flow rate of oil production process, when compared to primary recovery and continuous water injection or continuous gas injection

Spatial variability of soil CO2 emission in a sugarcane area characterized by secondary information

Soil CO2 emission (FCO2) is governed by the inherent properties of the soil, such as bulk density (BD). Mapping of FCO2 allows the evaluation and identification of areas with different accumulation potential of carbon. However, FCO2 mapping over larger areas is not feasible due to the period required for evaluation. This study aimed to assess the quality of FCO2 spatial estimates using values of BD as secondary information. FCO2 and BD were evaluated on a regular sampling grid of 60 m �� 60 m comprising 141 points, which was established on a sugarcane area. Four scenarios were defined according to the proportion of the number of sampling points of FCO2 to those of BD. For these scenarios, 67 (F67), 87 (F87), 107 (F107) and 127 (F127) FCO2 sampling points were used in addition to 127 BD sampling points used as supplementary information. The use of additional information from the BD provided an increase in the accuracy of the estimates only in the F107, F67 and F87 scenarios, respectively. The F87 scenario, with the approximate ratio between the FCO2 and BD of 1.00:1.50, presented the best relative improvement in the quality of estimates, thereby indicating that the BD should be sampled at a density 1.5 time greater than that applied for the FCO2. This procedure avoided problems related to the high temporal variability associated with FCO2, which enabled the mapping of this variable to be elaborated in large areas.

Soil CO2 emission as related to incorporation of sugarcane crop residues and aggregate breaking after rotary tiller

O preparo do solo �� um dos processos que aceleram a decomposi����o da mat��ria org��nica, transferindo carbono para atmosfera, principalmente na forma de CO2. Neste trabalho, investigou-se o efeito do preparo com enxada rotativa sobre as emiss��es de CO2 do solo durante 02 semanas ap��s o preparo do solo, incluindo-se a presen��a de res��duos vegetais sobre a superf��cie. As emiss��es foram avaliadas por 15 dias ap��s preparo em 3 parcelas: 1) sem preparo e sem palha superficial (SPs); 2) preparo com enxada rotativa sem a presen��a de palha na superf��cie (ERs), e 3) preparo com enxada rotativa com a presen��a de palha superficial (ERc). As emiss��es provenientes da ERc foram superiores ��s demais (0,777 g CO2 m-2 h-1), sendo as menores emiss��es registradas na parcela SPs (0,414 g CO2 m-2 h-1). As emiss��es totais indicaram que a diferen��a de C-CO2 emitida �� atmosfera corresponde a 3% do total de carbono adicional presente na palha, na parcela ERc, quando comparado �� parcela ERs. O aumento da emiss��o da parcela SPs para ERs foi acompanhado de uma modifica����o na distribui����o do tamanho de agregados, especialmente aqueles com di��metro m��dio inferior a 2 mm. O aumento da emiss��o da parcela ERs para ERc esteve relacionado a uma diminui����o da massa de palha na superf��cie, com fragmenta����o e incorpora����o da mesma no interior do solo. Quando se analisa a correla����o linear entre emiss��o de CO2 versus temperatura e umidade do solo, somente a emiss��o da ERc foi significativamente correlacionada (p<0,05) �� umidade do solo.