Matriz de Butler de Banda Ancha en Banda X para Antenas Reconfigurables

The work presented in this document shows the complete simulation of a Butler matrix. This circuit will be used in the feeding of a steerable on board antenna in X band. The antenna consists of printed elements grouped in an array. This terminal works in a frequency band from 7.25 up to 8.4 GHz (15% of bandwidth), where both bands, reception (7.25 – 7.75 GHz) and transmission (7.9–8.4 GHz), are included simultaneously. The whole antenna reaches 31 dBi, with a beam width smaller than 10º and a dual circular polarization. This antenna also includes the capability of electronic steering in elevation ±45º and mechanically motorized junction 360º in azimuth.

Electronic Steering antenna onboard for satellite communications in X band.

The antenna presented in this article will be developed for satellite communications onboard systems based on the recommendations ITU-R S.580-6 and ITU-R S.465-5. The antenna consists of printed elements grouped in an array, this terminal works in a frequency band from 7.25 up to 8.4 GHz (14.7% of bandwidth), where both bands, reception (7.25 - 7.75 GHz) and transmission (7.9 - 8.4 GHz), are included simultaneously. The antenna reaches a gain about 31 dBi, and it has a radiation pattern with a beamwidth smaller than 10° and a dual circular polarization. The antenna has the capability to steer in elevation from 90° to 40° electronically and 360° in azimuth with a motorized junction.

GEODA-GRUA: Adaptive Multibeam Conformal Antenna for Satellites Communications

The GEODA-GRUA is one conformal adaptive antenna array designed for satellite communications. Operating at 1.7 GHz with circular polarization, it is possible to track and communicate with several satellites at once being able to receive signals in full azimuth and within the range of 5° to broadside elevation thanks to its adaptive beam. The complex structure of the antenna array has 2700 radiating elements based on a set of 60 similar triangular arrays that are divided in 15 subarrays of 3 radiating elements. A control module governs each transmission/receiver (T/R) module associated to each cell in order to manage beam steering by shifting phases.

6x3 Microstrip Beam Forming Network for Multibeam Triangular Array

A six inputs and three outputs structure which can be used to obtain six simultaneous beams with a triangular array of 3 elements is presented. The beam forming network is obtained combining balanced and unbalanced hybrid couplers and allows to obtain six main beams with sixty degrees of separation in azimuth direction. Simulations and measurements showing the performance of the array and other detailed results are presented

Asymmetric propagation of airblast from bench blasting

This paper investigates the propagation of airblast from quarry blasting. Peak overpressure is calculated as a function of blasting parameters (explosive mass per delay and velocity at which the detonation sequence proceeds along the bench) and polar coordinates of the point of interest (distance to the blast and azimuth with respect to the free face of the blast). The model is in the form of the product of a classical scaled distance attenuation law times a directional correction factor. The latter considers the influence of the bench face, and attenuates overpressure at the top level and amplifies it at the bottom. Such factor also accounts for the effect of the delay by amplifying the pressure in the direction of the initiation sequence if the velocity of initiation exceeds half the speed of sound and up to an initiation velocity in the range of the speed of sound. The model has been fitted to an empirical data set composed by 134 airblast records monitored in 47 blasts at two quarries. The measurements were made at distances to the blast less than 450 m. The model is statistically significant and has a determination coefficient of 0.869

Estimación de la Reflectividad del Multitrayecto en Entornos Urbanos en Radares de Apertura Sintética

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images a target region reflectivity function in the multi-dimensional spatial domain of range and cross-range. SAR synthesizes a large aperture radar in order to achieve finer azimuth resolution than the one provided by any on-board real antenna. Conventional SAR techniques assume a single reflection of transmitted waveforms from targets. Nevertheless, today¿s new scenes force SAR systems to work in urban environments. Consequently, multiple-bounce returns are added to direct-scatter echoes. We refer to these as ghost images, since they obscure true target image and lead to poor resolution. By analyzing the quadratic phase error (QPE), this paper demonstrates that Earth¿s curvature influences the defocusing degree of multipath returns. In addition to the QPE, other parameters such as integrated sidelobe ratio (ISLR), peak sidelobe ratio (PSLR), contrast and entropy provide us with the tools to identify direct-scatter echoes in images containing undesired returns coming from multipath.

Multipath Reflectivity Estimation in Urban Environments for Synthetic Aperture Radar Images

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images a target region reflectivity function in the multi-dimensional spatial domain of range and cross-range. SAR synthesizes a large aperture radar in order to achieve a finer azimuth resolution than the one provided by any on-board real antenna. Conventional SAR techniques assume a single reflection of transmitted waveforms from targets. Nevertheless, today¿s new scenes force SAR systems to work in urban environments. Consequently, multiple-bounce returns are added to directscatter echoes. We refer to these as ghost images, since they obscure true target image and lead to poor resolution. By analyzing the quadratic phase error (QPE), this paper demonstrates that Earth¿s curvature influences the defocusing degree of multipath returns. In addition to the QPE, other parameters such as integrated sidelobe ratio (ISLR), peak sidelobe ratio (PSLR), contrast (C) and entropy (E) provide us with the tools to identify direct-scatter echoes in images containing undesired returns coming from multipath.

New Technique for Static Target Detection in Dense-Multipath Urban Environments

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images a target region reflectivity function in the multi-dimensional spatial domain of range and cross-range with a finer azimuth resolution than the one provided by any on-board real antenna. Conventional SAR techniques assume a single reflection of transmitted waveforms from targets. Nevertheless, new uses of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for civilian-security applications force SAR systems to work in much more complex scenes such as urban environments. Consequently, multiple-bounce returns are additionally superposed to direct-scatter echoes. They are known as ghost images, since they obscure true target image and lead to poor resolution. All this may involve a significant problem in applications related to surveillance and security. In this work, an innovative multipath mitigation technique is presented in which Time Reversal (TR) concept is applied to SAR images when the target is concealed in clutter, leading to TR-SAR technique. This way, the effect of multipath is considerably reduced ?or even removed?, recovering the lost resolution due to multipath propagation. Furthermore, some focusing indicators such as entropy (E), contrast (C) and Rényi entropy (RE) provide us with a good focusing criterion when using TR-SAR.

Código híbrido avanzado de motores de plasma de efecto Hall

La propulsión eléctrica constituye hoy una tecnología muy competitiva y de gran proyección de futuro. Dentro de los diversos motores de plasma existentes, el motor de efecto Hall ha adquirido una gran madurez y constituye un medio de propulsión idóneo para un rango amplio de misiones. En la presente Tesis se estudian los motores Hall con geometría convencional y paredes dieléctricas. La compleja interacción entre los múltiples fenómenos físicos presentes hace que sea difícil la simulación del plasma en estos motores. Los modelos híbridos son los que representan un mejor compromiso entre precisión y tiempo de cálculo. Se basan en utilizar un modelo fluido para los electrones y algoritmos de dinámica de partículas PIC (Particle-In- Cell) para los iones y los neutros. Permiten hacer uso de la hipótesis de cuasineutralidad del plasma, a cambio de resolver separadamente las capas límite (o vainas) que se forman en torno a las paredes de la cámara. Partiendo de un código híbrido existente, llamado HPHall-2, el objetivo de la Tesis doctoral ha sido el desarrollo de un código híbrido avanzado que mejorara la simulación de la descarga de plasma en un motor de efecto Hall. Las actualizaciones y mejoras realizadas en las diferentes partes que componen el código comprenden tanto aspectos teóricos como numéricos. Fruto de la extensa revisión de la algoritmia del código HPHall-2 se han conseguido reducir los errores de precisión un orden de magnitud, y se ha incrementado notablemente su consistencia y robustez, permitiendo la simulación del motor en un amplio rango de condiciones. Algunos aspectos relevantes a destacar en el subcódigo de partículas son: la implementación de un nuevo algoritmo de pesado que permite determinar de forma más precisa el flujo de las magnitudes del plasma; la implementación de un nuevo algoritmo de control de población, que permite tener suficiente número de partículas cerca de las paredes de la cámara, donde los gradientes son mayores y las condiciones de cálculo son más críticas; las mejoras en los balances de masa y energía; y un mejor cálculo del campo eléctrico en una malla no uniforme. Merece especial atención el cumplimiento de la condición de Bohm en el borde de vaina, que en los códigos híbridos representa una condición de contorno necesaria para obtener una solución consistente con el modelo de interacción plasma-pared, y que en HPHall-2 aún no se había resuelto satisfactoriamente. En esta Tesis se ha implementado el criterio cinético de Bohm para una población de iones con diferentes cargas eléctricas y una gran dispersión de velocidades. En el código, el cumplimiento de la condición cinética de Bohm se consigue por medio de un algoritmo que introduce una fina capa de aceleración nocolisional adyacente a la vaina y mide adecuadamente el flujo de partículas en el espacio y en el tiempo. Las mejoras realizadas en el subcódigo de electrones incrementan la capacidad de simulación del código, especialmente en la región aguas abajo del motor, donde se simula la neutralización del chorro del plasma por medio de un modelo de cátodo volumétrico. Sin abordar el estudio detallado de la turbulencia del plasma, se implementan modelos sencillos de ajuste de la difusión anómala de Bohm, que permiten reproducir los valores experimentales del potencial y la temperatura del plasma, así como la corriente de descarga del motor. En cuanto a los aspectos teóricos, se hace especial énfasis en la interacción plasma-pared y en la dinámica de los electrones secundarios libres en el interior del plasma, cuestiones que representan hoy en día problemas abiertos en la simulación de los motores Hall. Los nuevos modelos desarrollados buscan una imagen más fiel a la realidad. Así, se implementa el modelo de vaina de termalización parcial, que considera una función de distribución no-Maxwelliana para los electrones primarios y contabiliza unas pérdidas energéticas más cercanas a la realidad. Respecto a los electrones secundarios, se realiza un estudio cinético simplificado para evaluar su grado de confinamiento en el plasma, y mediante un modelo fluido en el límite no-colisional, se determinan las densidades y energías de los electrones secundarios libres, así como su posible efecto en la ionización. El resultado obtenido muestra que los electrones secundarios se pierden en las paredes rápidamente, por lo que su efecto en el plasma es despreciable, no así en las vainas, donde determinan el salto de potencial. Por último, el trabajo teórico y de simulación numérica se complementa con el trabajo experimental realizado en el Pnnceton Plasma Physics Laboratory, en el que se analiza el interesante transitorio inicial que experimenta el motor en el proceso de arranque. Del estudio se extrae que la presencia de gases residuales adheridos a las paredes juegan un papel relevante, y se recomienda, en general, la purga completa del motor antes del modo normal de operación. El resultado final de la investigación muestra que el código híbrido desarrollado representa una buena herramienta de simulación de un motor Hall. Reproduce adecuadamente la física del motor, proporcionando resultados similares a los experimentales, y demuestra ser un buen laboratorio numérico para estudiar el plasma en el interior del motor. Abstract Electric propulsion is today a very competitive technology and has a great projection into the future. Among the various existing plasma thrusters, the Hall effect thruster has acquired a considerable maturity and constitutes an ideal means of propulsion for a wide range of missions. In the present Thesis only Hall thrusters with conventional geometry and dielectric walls are studied. The complex interaction between multiple physical phenomena makes difficult the plasma simulation in these engines. Hybrid models are those representing a better compromise between precision and computational cost. They use a fluid model for electrons and Particle-In-Cell (PIC) algorithms for ions and neutrals. The hypothesis of plasma quasineutrality is invoked, which requires to solve separately the sheaths formed around the chamber walls. On the basis of an existing hybrid code, called HPHall-2, the aim of this doctoral Thesis is to develop an advanced hybrid code that better simulates the plasma discharge in a Hall effect thruster. Updates and improvements of the code include both theoretical and numerical issues. The extensive revision of the algorithms has succeeded in reducing the accuracy errors in one order of magnitude, and the consistency and robustness of the code have been notably increased, allowing the simulation of the thruster in a wide range of conditions. The most relevant achievements related to the particle subcode are: the implementation of a new weighing algorithm that determines more accurately the plasma flux magnitudes; the implementation of a new algorithm to control the particle population, assuring enough number of particles near the chamber walls, where there are strong gradients and the conditions to perform good computations are more critical; improvements in the mass and energy balances; and a new algorithm to compute the electric field in a non-uniform mesh. It deserves special attention the fulfilment of the Bohm condition at the edge of the sheath, which represents a boundary condition necessary to match consistently the hybrid code solution with the plasma-wall interaction, and remained as a question unsatisfactory solved in the HPHall-2 code. In this Thesis, the kinetic Bohm criterion has been implemented for an ion particle population with different electric charges and a large dispersion in their velocities. In the code, the fulfilment of the kinetic Bohm condition is accomplished by an algorithm that introduces a thin non-collisional layer next to the sheaths, producing the ion acceleration, and measures properly the flux of particles in time and space. The improvements made in the electron subcode increase the code simulation capabilities, specially in the region downstream of the thruster, where the neutralization of the plasma jet is simulated using a volumetric cathode model. Without addressing the detailed study of the plasma turbulence, simple models for a parametric adjustment of the anomalous Bohm difussion are implemented in the code. They allow to reproduce the experimental values of the plasma potential and the electron temperature, as well as the discharge current of the thruster. Regarding the theoretical issues, special emphasis has been made in the plasma-wall interaction of the thruster and in the dynamics of free secondary electrons within the plasma, questions that still remain unsolved in the simulation of Hall thrusters. The new developed models look for results closer to reality, such as the partial thermalization sheath model, that assumes a non-Maxwellian distribution functions for primary electrons, and better computes the energy losses at the walls. The evaluation of secondary electrons confinement within the chamber is addressed by a simplified kinetic study; and using a collisionless fluid model, the densities and energies of free secondary electrons are computed, as well as their effect on the plasma ionization. Simulations show that secondary electrons are quickly lost at walls, with a negligible effect in the bulk of the plasma, but they determine the potential fall at sheaths. Finally, numerical simulation and theoretical work is complemented by the experimental work carried out at the Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, devoted to analyze the interesting transitional regime experienced by the thruster in the startup process. It is concluded that the gas impurities adhered to the thruster walls play a relevant role in the transitional regime and, as a general recomendation, a complete purge of the thruster before starting its normal mode of operation it is suggested. The final result of the research conducted in this Thesis shows that the developed code represents a good tool for the simulation of Hall thrusters. The code reproduces properly the physics of the thruster, with results similar to the experimental ones, and represents a good numerical laboratory to study the plasma inside the thruster.

Prediction of near field overpressure from quarry blasting

This paper investigates the propagation of airblast or pressure waves in air produced by bench blasting (i.e. detonation of the explosive in a row of blastholes, breaking the burden of rock towards the free vertical face of the block). Peak overpressure is calculated as a function of blasting parameters (explosive mass per delay and velocity at which the detonation sequence proceeds along the bench) and the polar coordinates of the position of interest (distance to the source and azimuth with respect to the free face). The model has been fitted to empirical data using linear least squares. The data set is composed of 122 airblast records monitored at distances less than 400 m in 41 production blasts carried out in two quarries. The model is statistically significant and has a determination coefficient of 0.87. The formula is validated from 12 airblast measurements gathered in five additional blasts.

Dual circular polarized steering antenna for satellite communications in X band

In this work, a dual circular polarized steering antenna for satellite communications in X band is presented. The antenna consists of printed elements grouped in an array. This terminal works in a frequency band from 7.25 GHz up to 8.4 GHz (15% of bandwidth), where both bands, reception (RX) and transmission (TX) are included simultaneously and Left Handed Circular Polarization (LHCP) and Right Handed Circular Polarization (RHCP) are interchangeable. The antenna is compact, narrow bandwidth and reaches a gain of 16 dBi. It has the capability to steer in elevation to 45±, 75±, 105± and 135± electronically with a Butler matrix and 360± in azimuth with a motorized junction.

Space Debris Removal with an Ion Beam Shepherd Satellite: target-plasma interaction

A novel concept for active space debris removal known as Ion Beam Shepherd (IBS) which has been recently presented by our group is investigated. The concept makes use of a highly collimated ion beam to exert the necessary force on a generic debris to modify its orbit and/or attitude from a safe distance in a controlled manner, without the need of docking. After describing the main characteristics of the IBS system, some of the key aspects of thruster plasma and its interaction with the debris are studied, namely, (1) the modeling of the expansion of an plasma beam, based on the quasi-selfsimilarity exhibited by hypersonic plumes, (2) the characterization of the force and torque exerted upon the target debris, and (3) a preliminary evaluation of other plasma-body interactions.

Esfuerzos inducidos en presas, arco-gravedad en operación por la acción térmica medioambiental : una aportación a su análisis y evaluación

Cyclic fluctuations of the atmospheric temperature on the dam site, of the water temperature in the reservoir and of the intensity of solar radiation on the faces of the dam cause significant stresses in the body of concrete dams. These stresses can be evaluated first by introducing in analysis models a linear temperature distribution statically equivalent to the real temperature distribution in the dam; the stress valúes obtained from this first step must be complemented (especially in the área of dam faces) with the stress valúes resuiting from the difference between the real temperature law and the linear law at each node. In the case of arch gravity dams, and because of their characteristics of arch dam featuring a thick section, both types of temperature-induced stresses are of similar importance. Thermal stress valúes are directly linked to a series of factors: atmospheric and water temperature and intensity of solar radiation at dam site, site latitude, azimuth of the dam, as well as geometrical characteristics of the dam and thermal properties of concrete. This thesis first presents a complete study of the physical phenomenon of heat exchange between the environment and the dam itself, and establishes the participation scheme of all parameters involved in the problem considered. A detailed documental review of available methods and techniques is then carried out both for the estimation of environmental thermal loads and for the evaluation of the stresses induced by these loads. Variation ranges are also established for the main parameters. The definition of the geometrical parameters of the dam is provided based on the description of a wide set of arch gravity dams built in Spain and abroad. As a practical reference of the parameters defining the thermal action of the environment, a set of zones, in which thermal parameters reach homogeneous valúes, was established for Spain. The mean valué and variation range of atmospheric temperature were then determined for each zone, based on a series of historical valúes. Summer and winter temperature increases caused by solar radiation were also defined for each zone. Since the hypothesis of thermal stratification in the reservoir has been considered, máximum and mínimum temperature valúes reached at the bottom of the reservoir were determined for each climatic zone, as well as the law of temperature variation in function of depth. Various dam-and-foundation configurations were analysed by means of finite element 3D models, in which the dam and foundation were each submitted to different load combinations. The seasonal thermal behaviour of sections of variable thickness was analysed through the application of numerical techniques to one-dimensional models. Contrasting the results of both analyses led to conclusions on the influence of environmental thermal action on the stress conditions of the structure. Las oscilaciones periódicas de la temperatura ambiente en el emplazamiento y de la temperatura del agua en el embalse, así como de la incidencia de la radiación solar sobre los paramentos de la presa, son causa de tensiones importantes en el cuerpo de las presas de hormigón. Estas tensiones pueden ser evaluadas en primer lugar introduciendo en los modelos tridimensionales de análisis, distribuciones lineales de temperatura estáticamente equivalentes a las correspondientes distribuciones reales en el cuerpo de la presa; las tensiones así obtenidas han de complementarse (sobre todo en las cercanías de los paramentos) con tensiones cuyo origen está en la temperatura diferencia entre la ley real y la lineal en cada punto. En el caso de las presas arco-gravedad y en razón de su doble característica de presas arco y de sección gruesa, ambas componentes de la tensión inducida por la temperatura son de magnitud similar. Los valores de estas tensiones de origen térmico están directamente relacionados con la temperatura del emplazamiento y del embalse, con la intensidad de la insolación, con la latitud y el azimut de la presa, con las características geométricas de la estructura y con las propiedades térmicas del hormigón. En esta tesis se realiza, en primer lugar, un estudio completo del fenómeno físico del intercambio de calor entre el medio ambiente y el cuerpo de la presa, estableciendo el mecanismo de participación de todos los parámetros que configuran el problema. En segundo lugar se realiza a cabo una revisión documental detallada de los métodos y técnicas utilizables tanto en la estimación de las cargas térmicas ambientales como en la evaluación de las tensiones inducidas por dichas cargas. En tercer lugar se establecen rangos de variación para los principales parámetros que configuran el problema. Los parámetros geométricos de la presa se definen a partir de la descripción de un amplio conjunto de presas arco-gravedad tanto españolas como del resto del mundo. Como referencia práctica de los parámetros que definen la acción térmica ambiental se establecen en España un conjunto de zonas caracterizadas por que, en cada una de ellas, los parámetros térmicos alcanzan valores homogéneos. Así, y en base a series de valores históricos, se establecen la media y la amplitud de la variación anual de la temperatura ambiental en cada una de las zonas. Igualmente, se han definido para cada zona los incrementos de temperatura que, en invierno y en verano, produce la insolación. En relación con el agua del embalse y en la hipótesis de estratificación térmica de este, se han definido los valores, aplicables en cada una de las zonas, de las temperaturas máxima y mínima en el fondo así como la ley de variación de la temperatura con la profundidad. Utilizando modelos tridimensionales de elementos finitos se analizan diferentes configuraciones de la presa y la cimentación sometidas, cada una de ellas, a diferentes combinaciones de carga. Aplicando técnicas numéricas a modelos unidimensionales se analiza el comportamiento térmico temporal de secciones de espesor variable. Considerando conjuntamente los resultados de los análisis anteriores se obtienen conclusiones parametrizadas de detalle sobre la influencia que tiene en el estado tensional de la estructura la consideración de la acción térmica ambiental.