Justicia, vigencia y eficacia del régimen internacional de patentes

La normativa relativa a las patentes de invención ha rebasado las fronteras de los Estados nacionales. Lo que se entiende como invención (regulado de manera implícita al menos), la materia patentable, las excepciones a la patentabilidad, la duración del período de explotación exclusiva que se le concede al inventor sobre su obra producto del intelecto (estándar mínimo, no puede ser inferior), lo que se entiende como explotación, los conceptos de novedad, nivel inventivo, aplicación industrial (regulados de manera implícita al menos), constituyen preceptos uniformes vigentes para la humanidad toda. La afirmación contenida en el párrafo anterior se la debe entender con ciertos límites. Por ejemplo, los distintos Estados pueden excluir como materia patentable al material biológico (con excepción de los micro organismos), ciertos aspectos de la institución de la licencia obligatoria quedan a la libre elección de los Estados, incluso el optar por establecerla, los distintos Estados pueden regular por sobre los acuerdos “mínimos” logrados, etc. Aspectos de importancia, pero no los definitivos a la hora de configurar la protección concedida a las patentes de invención, su objeto y alcance. Por ejemplo, el principio que manda a que se concedan patentes sin importar el ámbito de la tecnología en que sea aplicable la invención, es inequívocamente universal (existe margen para excepciones, reguladas claro). Lo anterior se logró por la aprobación del Acuerdo ADPIC, las siglas en español del acuerdo global que rige la materia, vigente en el mundo entero (aquello es inminente e irrefutable). Este convenio en su segunda década de vigencia ha conseguido efectivamente homologar las más dispares legislaciones a nivel mundial y dar pie al actual régimen global, que este estudio critica. Bajo este escenario queda corto cualquier trabajo que al abordar el tema se refiera únicamente a lo interno, ya que las regulaciones al respecto trascendieron este ámbito. Es así que en un intento por construir un sistema justo, objetivo que constituye el fin último de la Ciencia Jurídica, este trabajo propone modificar las regulaciones globales sobre la materia. Se reconoce para el efecto, por supuesto, la necesidad de evitar distorsiones en el mercado internacional de bienes intangibles, por lo cual se debe ratificar la homologación y universalidad de la normativa sobre las patentes de invención. Es así que contemplando una normativa universal, utilizando como punto de partida el Acuerdo ADPIC, se plantea que la duración de la protección otorgada por una patente de invención, al nacional de cualquier país, dentro de un determinado Estado dependa de la capacidad económica de los habitantes del mismo (correctivo principal). Básicamente cambiará el hecho de que todos los Estados miembros estén obligados a otorgar 20 años de protección, con la introducción de un sistema en que el plazo de protección que otorgue un determinado Estado, tenga relación a la capacidad económica de sus habitantes. Es decir, cada quien según su capacidad. Le corresponderá al organismo multilateral que rige la materia determinar los distintos plazos que otorgarán los diversos Estados, tomando en cuenta la capacidad de sus habitantes, en aplicación de parámetros constantes. Se debe tener en cuenta que, dado el estado actual de las comunicaciones, los productos del intelecto en general y las invenciones de manera particular, benefician a la humanidad toda sin distingo del país o región. Por lo tanto, es deber de toda la humanidad el alentar su creación y difusión, eso si, dentro de la capacidad de cada Estado parar hacerlo.

Uncertainty assessment of a process-based integrated catchment model of phosphorus

Despite the many models developed for phosphorus concentration prediction at differing spatial and temporal scales, there has been little effort to quantify uncertainty in their predictions. Model prediction uncertainty quantification is desirable, for informed decision-making in river-systems management. An uncertainty analysis of the process-based model, integrated catchment model of phosphorus (INCA-P), within the generalised likelihood uncertainty estimation (GLUE) framework is presented. The framework is applied to the Lugg catchment (1,077 km2), a River Wye tributary, on the England–Wales border. Daily discharge and monthly phosphorus (total reactive and total), for a limited number of reaches, are used to initially assess uncertainty and sensitivity of 44 model parameters, identified as being most important for discharge and phosphorus predictions. This study demonstrates that parameter homogeneity assumptions (spatial heterogeneity is treated as land use type fractional areas) can achieve higher model fits, than a previous expertly calibrated parameter set. The model is capable of reproducing the hydrology, but a threshold Nash-Sutcliffe co-efficient of determination (E or R 2) of 0.3 is not achieved when simulating observed total phosphorus (TP) data in the upland reaches or total reactive phosphorus (TRP) in any reach. Despite this, the model reproduces the general dynamics of TP and TRP, in point source dominated lower reaches. This paper discusses why this application of INCA-P fails to find any parameter sets, which simultaneously describe all observed data acceptably. The discussion focuses on uncertainty of readily available input data, and whether such process-based models should be used when there isn’t sufficient data to support the many parameters.

On integral equation and least squares methods for scattering by diffraction gratings

In this paper we consider the scattering of a plane acoustic or electromagnetic wave by a one-dimensional, periodic rough surface. We restrict the discussion to the case when the boundary is sound soft in the acoustic case, perfectly reflecting with TE polarization in the EM case, so that the total field vanishes on the boundary. We propose a uniquely solvable first kind integral equation formulation of the problem, which amounts to a requirement that the normal derivative of the Green's representation formula for the total field vanish on a horizontal line below the scattering surface. We then discuss the numerical solution by Galerkin's method of this (ill-posed) integral equation. We point out that, with two particular choices of the trial and test spaces, we recover the so-called SC (spectral-coordinate) and SS (spectral-spectral) numerical schemes of DeSanto et al., Waves Random Media, 8, 315-414 1998. We next propose a new Galerkin scheme, a modification of the SS method that we term the SS* method, which is an instance of the well-known dual least squares Galerkin method. We show that the SS* method is always well-defined and is optimally convergent as the size of the approximation space increases. Moreover, we make a connection with the classical least squares method, in which the coefficients in the Rayleigh expansion of the solution are determined by enforcing the boundary condition in a least squares sense, pointing out that the linear system to be solved in the SS* method is identical to that in the least squares method. Using this connection we show that (reflecting the ill-posed nature of the integral equation solved) the condition number of the linear system in the SS* and least squares methods approaches infinity as the approximation space increases in size. We also provide theoretical error bounds on the condition number and on the errors induced in the numerical solution computed as a result of ill-conditioning. Numerical results confirm the convergence of the SS* method and illustrate the ill-conditioning that arises.

The effects of infection by Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae (Myxozoa) and temperature on Fredericella sultana (Bryozoa)

The myxozoan, Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae, exploits freshwater bryozoans as definitive hosts, occurring as cryptic stages in bryozoan colonies during covert infections and as spore-forming sacs during overt infections. Spores released from sacs are infective to salmonid fish, causing the devastating Proliferative Kidney Disease (PKD). We undertook laboratory studies using mesocosm systems running at 10, 14 and 20 degrees C to determine how infection by T bryosalmonae and water temperature influence fitness of one of its most important bryozoan hosts, Fredericella sultana, over a period of 4 weeks. The effects of infection were context-dependent and often undetectable. Covert infections appear to pose very low energetic costs. Thus, we found that growth of covertly infected F. sultana colonies was similar to that of uninfected colonies regardless of temperature, as was the propensity to produce dormant resting stages (statoblasts). Production of statoblasts, however, was associated with decreased growth. Overt infections imposed greater effects on correlates of host fitness by: (i) reducing growth rates at the two higher temperatures: (ii) increasing mortality rates at the highest temperature: (iii) inhibiting statoblast production. Our results indicate that parasitism should have a relatively small effect on host fitness in the field as the negative effects of infection were mainly expressed in environmentally extreme conditions (20 degrees C for 4 weeks). The generally low virulence of T. bryosalmonae is similar to that recently demonstrated for another myxozoan endoparasite of freshwater bryozoans. The unique opportunity for extensive vertical transmission in these colonial invertebrate hosts couples the reproductive interests of host and parasite and may well give rise to the low virulence that characterises these systems. Our study implies that climate change can be expected to exacerbate PKD outbreaks and increase the geographic range of PKD as a result of the combined responses of T. bryosalmonae and its bryozoan hosts to higher temperatures. Crown Copyright (C) 2009 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Macroevolutionary patterns in the origin of mutualisms involving ants

Ants are a diverse and abundant insect group that form mutualistic associations with a number of different organisms from fungi to insects and plants. Here, we use a phylogenetic approach to identify ecological factors that explain macroevolutionary trends in the mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing Homoptera. We also consider association between ant-Homoptera, ant-fungi and ant-plant mutualisms. Homoptera-tending ants are more likely to be forest dwelling, polygynous, ecologically dominant and arboreal nesting with large colonies of 10(4)-10(5) individuals. Mutualistic ants (including those that garden fungi and inhabit ant-plants) are found in under half of the formicid subfamilies. At the genus level, however, we find a negative association between ant-Homoptera and ant-fungi mutualisms, whereas there is a positive association between ant-Homoptera and ant-plant mutualisms. We suggest that species can only specialize in multiple mutualisms simultaneously when there is no trade-off in requirements from the different partners and no redundancy of rewards.