Parameter estimation of a two-horizon soil profile by combining crop canopy and surface soil moisture observations using GLUE

Estimation of soil parameters by inverse modeling using observations on either surface soil moisture or crop variables has been successfully attempted in many studies, but difficulties to estimate root zone properties arise when heterogeneous layered soils are considered. The objective of this study was to explore the potential of combining observations on surface soil moisture and crop variables - leaf area index (LAI) and above-ground biomass for estimating soil parameters (water holding capacity and soil depth) in a two-layered soil system using inversion of the crop model STICS. This was performed using GLUE method on a synthetic data set on varying soil types and on a data set from a field experiment carried out in two maize plots in South India. The main results were (i) combination of surface soil moisture and above-ground biomass provided consistently good estimates with small uncertainity of soil properties for the two soil layers, for a wide range of soil paramater values, both in the synthetic and the field experiment, (ii) above-ground biomass was found to give relatively better estimates and lower uncertainty than LAI when combined with surface soil moisture, especially for estimation of soil depth, (iii) surface soil moisture data, either alone or combined with crop variables, provided a very good estimate of the water holding capacity of the upper soil layer with very small uncertainty whereas using the surface soil moisture alone gave very poor estimates of the soil properties of the deeper layer, and (iv) using crop variables alone (else above-ground biomass or LAI) provided reasonable estimates of the deeper layer properties depending on the soil type but provided poor estimates of the first layer properties. The robustness of combining observations of the surface soil moisture and the above-ground biomass for estimating two layer soil properties, which was demonstrated using both synthetic and field experiments in this study, needs now to be tested for a broader range of climatic conditions and crop types, to assess its potential for spatial applications. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Effect of frequency on seismic response of reinforced soil slopes in shaking table tests

This paper studies the effect of frequency of base shaking on the dynamic response of unreinforced and reinforced soil slopes through a series of shaking table tests. Slopes were constructed using clayey sand and geogrids were used for reinforcing the slopes. Two different slope angles 45 degrees and 60 degrees were used in tests and the quantity and location of reinforcement is varied in different tests. Acceleration of shaking is kept constant as 0.3 g in all the tests to maximize the response and the frequency of shaking was 2 Hz, 5 Hz and 7 Hz in different tests. The slope is instrumented with ultrasonic displacement sensors and accelerometers at different elevations. The response of different slopes is compared in terms of the deformation of the slope and acceleration amplifications measured at different elevations. It is observed that the displacements at all elevations increased with increase in frequency for all slopes, whereas the effect of frequency on acceleration amplifications is not significant for reinforced slopes. Results showed that the acceleration and displacement response is not increasing proportionately with the increase in the frequency, suggesting that the role of frequency in the seismic response is very important. Reinforced slopes showed lesser displacements compared to unreinforced slopes at all frequency levels. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Verification of Masonry Building Code to Flexural Behavior of Cement-Stabilized Soil Block

Most studies involving cement-stabilized soil blocks (CSSB) concern material properties, such as the characteristics of erosion and strength and how the composition of the block affects these properties. Moreover, research has been conducted on the performance of various mortars, investigating their material properties and the tensile bond strength between CSSB units and mortar. In contrast, very little is currently known about CSSB masonry structural behavior. Because structural design codes of traditional masonry buildings were well developed over the past century, many of the same principles may be applicable to CSSB masonry buildings. This paper details the topic of flexural behavior of CSSB masonry walls and whether the Masonry Standards Joint Committee (MSJC) code can be applied to this material for improved safety of such buildings. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000566. (C) 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Soil stabilization with waste materials based binder

This paper describes a laboratory trial to study the effectiveness of a waste-based binder to stabilize expansive soils. The proposed binders viz., Fly ash and/or Ground granulated Blast furnace slag (GGBS) were mixed with the expansive soil along with a small amount of lime to increase soil pH and enable pozzolanic reactions. The geotechnical characteristics of the various combinations of samples were investigated through the compaction tests, unconfined compression tests etc. It was found that the addition of GGBS with and without fly ash and lime has significant influence on the geotechnical characteristics of the soil.

Modeling the dynamic response of wrap-faced reinforced soil retaining walls

This paper describes the development of a numerical model for simulating the shaking table tests on wrap-faced reinforced soil retaining walls. Some of the physical model tests carried out on reinforced soil retaining walls subjected to dynamic excitation through uniaxial shaking tests are briefly discussed. Models of retaining walls are constructed in a perspex box with geotextile reinforcement using the wraparound technique with dry sand backfill and instrumented with displacement sensors, accelerometers, and soil pressure sensors. Results showed that the displacements decrease with the increase in number of reinforcement layers, whereas acceleration amplifications were not affected significantly. Numerical modeling of these shaking table tests is carried out using the Fast Lagrangian Analysis of Continua program. The numerical model is validated by comparing the results with experiments on physical models. Responses of wrap-faced walls with varying numbers of reinforcement layers are compared. Sensitivity analysis performed on the numerical models showed that the friction and dilation angle of backfill material and stiffness properties of the geotextile-soil interface are the most affecting parameters for the model response.

Bearing capacity of piles in soft clay underlaid by cohesive frictional soil

By using the axisymmetric quasi-lower bound finite-element limit analysis, the bearing capacity factors N-c(p) and N-gamma q(p) have been computed for axially loaded piles, with the shaft embedded in a fully cohesive soil medium and the tip placed over cohesive frictional soil strata. The results were obtained for various combinations of L/D, phi(l), and c(l)/c(u); the subscripts l and u refer to lower and upper soil strata, respectively. The factors N-c(p) and N-gamma q(p) increase continuously with increases in L/D and phi(l); the rate of increase of N-c(p) and N-gamma q(p) with L/D, however, decreases with an increase in L/D. For c(l)/c(u) > 100, the factor N-c(p) hardly depends on L/D.

Target reliability-based optimisation for internal seismic stability of reinforced soil structures

In this paper, an approach for target component and system reliability-based design optimisation (RBDO) to evaluate safety for the internal seismic stability of geosynthetic-reinforced soil (GRS) structures is presented. Three modes of failure are considered: tension failure of the bottom-most layer of reinforcement, pullout failure of the topmost layer of reinforcement, and total pullout failure of all reinforcement layers. The analysis is performed by treating backfill properties, geometric and strength properties of reinforcement as random variables. The optimum number of reinforcement layers and optimum pullout length needed to maintain stability against tension failure, pullout failure and total pullout failure for different coefficients of variation of friction angle of the backfill, design strength of the reinforcement and horizontal seismic acceleration coefficients by targeting various system reliability indices are proposed. The results provide guidelines for the total length of reinforcement required, considering the variability of backfill as well as seismic coefficients. One illustrative example is presented to explain the evaluation of reliability for internal stability of reinforced soil structures using the proposed approach. In the second illustration (the stability of five walls), the Kushiro wall subjected to the Kushiro-Oki earthquake, the Seiken wall subjected to the Chiba-ken Toho-Oki earthquake, the Ta Kung wall subjected to the Ji-Ji earthquake, and the Gould and Valencia walls subjected to Northridge earthquake are re-examined.

Analytical model for stress-strain response of plastic waste mixed soil

Recycling plastic water bottles has become one of the major challenges world wide. The present study provides an approach for the use of plastic waste as reinforcement material in soil, which can be used for ground improvement, subbases, and subgrade preparation in road construction. The experimental results are presented in the form of stress-strain-pore water pressure response and compression paths. On the basis of experimental test results, it is observed that the strength of soil is improved and compressibility reduced significantly with the addition of a small percentage of plastic waste to the soil. In this paper, an analytical model is proposed to evaluate the response of plastic waste mixed soil. It is noted that the model captures the stress-strain and pore water pressure response of all percentages of plastic waste adequately. The paper also provides a comparative study of failure stress obtained from different published models and the proposed model, which are compared with experimental results. The improvement in strength attributable to the inclusion of plastic waste can be advantageously used in ground improvement projects.

Calibration Curve with Improved Limit of Detection for Cadmium in Soil: An Approach to Minimize the Matrix Effect in Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopic Analysis

The present article describes a working or combined calibration curve in laser-induced breakdown spectroscopic analysis, which is the cumulative result of the calibration curves obtained from neutral and singly ionized atomic emission spectral lines. This working calibration curve reduces the effect of change in matrix between different zone soils and certified soil samples because it includes both the species' (neutral and singly ionized) concentration of the element of interest. The limit of detection using a working calibration curve is found better as compared to its constituent calibration curves (i.e., individual calibration curves). The quantitative results obtained using the working calibration curve is in better agreement with the result of inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectroscopy as compared to the result obtained using its constituent calibration curves.

Reliability-based load and resistance factor design approach for external seismic stability of reinforced soil walls

Load and resistance factor design (LRFD) approach for the design of reinforced soil walls is presented to produce designs with consistent and uniform levels of risk for the whole range of design applications. The evaluation of load and resistance factors for the reinforced soil walls based on reliability theory is presented. A first order reliability method (FORM) is used to determine appropriate ranges for the values of the load and resistance factors. Using pseudo-static limit equilibrium method, analysis is conducted to evaluate the external stability of reinforced soil walls subjected to earthquake loading. The potential failure mechanisms considered in the analysis are sliding failure, eccentricity failure of resultant force (or overturning failure) and bearing capacity failure. The proposed procedure includes the variability associated with reinforced backfill, retained backfill, foundation soil, horizontal seismic acceleration and surcharge load acting on the wall. Partial factors needed to maintain the stability against three modes of failure by targeting component reliability index of 3.0 are obtained for various values of coefficients of variation (COV) of friction angle of backfill and foundation soil, distributed dead load surcharge, cohesion of the foundation soil and horizontal seismic acceleration. A comparative study between LRFD and allowable stress design (ASD) is also presented with a design example. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Laboratory Studies on Stabilization of an Expansive Soil by Lime Precipitation Technique

Lime stabilization prevails to be the most widely adopted in situ stabilization method for controlling the swell-shrink potentials of expansive soils despite construction difficulties and its ineffectiveness in certain conditions. In addition to the in situ stabilization methods presently practiced, it is theoretically possible to facilitate in situ precipitation of lime in soil by successive permeation of calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions into the expansive soil. In this laboratory investigation, an attempt is made to study the precipitation of lime in soil by successive mixing of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions with the expansive soil in two different sequences.Experimental results indicated that in situ precipitation of lime in soil by sequential mixing of CaCl2 and NaOH solutions with expansive soil developed strong lime-modification and soil-lime pozzolanic reactions. The lime-modification reactions together with the poorly de- veloped cementation products controlled the swelling potential, reduced the plasticity index, and increased the unconfined compressive strength of the expansive clay cured for 24 h. Comparatively, both lime-modification reactions and well-developed crystalline cementation products (formed by lime-soil pozzolanic reactions) contributed to the marked increase in the unconfined compressive strength of the ex-pansive soil that was cured for 7–21 days. Results also show that the sequential mixing of expansive soil with CaCl2 solution followed by NaOH solution is more effective than mixing expansive soil with NaOH solution followed by CaCl2 solution. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT .1943-5533.0000483. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.

Influence of soil grading on the characteristics of cement stabilised soil compacts

The paper deals with experimental investigations aiming at specifying optimum soil grading limits for the production of cement stabilised soil bricks (CSSB). Wide range of soil grading curves encompassing both fine and coarse grained soils were considered. Strength, durability and absorption characteristics of CSSB were examined considering 14 different types of soil grading curves and three cement contents. The investigations show that there is optimum clay content for the soil mix which yields maximum compressive strength for CSSB and the optimum clay content is about 10 and 14 % for fine grained and coarse grained soils respectively. Void ratio of the compacted specimens is the lowest at the optimum clay content and therefore possesses maximum strength at that point. CSSB using fine grained soils shows higher strength and better durability characteristics when compared to the bricks using coarse grained soils.

Vermicompost reduces the invasiveness of the earthworm species Dichogaster bolaui compared to the use of compost in a degraded tropical soil in Northern Vietnam

In Northern Vietnam, organic fertilization programmes are being tested to restore soil fertility and reduce soil erosion. However, the amendment of organic matter in soil is also associated with the development of the invasive earthworm species Dichogaster bolaui. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of organic matter amendment quality (compost vs. vermicompost) on D. bolaui. Our study confirmed D. bolaui development in organic patches in the field. However, we also observed that the flat-backed millipede Asiomorpha coarctata proliferated in these organic patches. Native to Asia, this millipede species is also considered as invasive in America. Both D. bolaui and A. coarctata more rapidly colonized compost than vermicompost patches. A laboratory experiment confirmed this trend and showed the limited development of D. bolaui in vermicompost. This is probably because of the decreased palatability of this substrate to soil fauna. In conclusion, any restoration practice that aims to increase the organic stocks in soils degraded by erosion should consider the quality of the organic amendment. In Northern Vietnam, vermicompost may be the preferred substrate for restoring soils while limiting the spread of D. bolaui. (C) 2014 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

Sensitivity of meteorological input and soil properties in simulating aerosols (dust, PM10, and BC) using CHIMERE chemistry transport model

The objective of this study is to evaluate the ability of a European chemistry transport model, `CHIMERE' driven by the US meteorological model MM5, in simulating aerosol concentrations dust, PM10 and black carbon (BC)] over the Indian region. An evaluation of a meteorological event (dust storm); impact of change in soil-related parameters and meteorological input grid resolution on these aerosol concentrations has been performed. Dust storm simulation over Indo-Gangetic basin indicates ability of the model to capture dust storm events. Measured (AERONET data) and simulated parameters such as aerosol optical depth (AOD) and Angstrom exponent are used to evaluate the performance of the model to capture the dust storm event. A sensitivity study is performed to investigate the impact of change in soil characteristics (thickness of the soil layer in contact with air, volumetric water, and air content of the soil) and meteorological input grid resolution on the aerosol (dust, PM10, BC) distribution. Results show that soil parameters and meteorological input grid resolution have an important impact on spatial distribution of aerosol (dust, PM10, BC) concentrations.

Fire and soil temperatures during controlled burns in seasonally dry tropical forests of southern India

Fire and soil temperatures were measured during controlled burns conducted by the Forest Department at two seasonally dry tropical forest sites in southern India, and their relationships with fuel load, fuel moisture and weather variables assessed using stepwise regression. Fire temperatures at the ground level varied between 79 degrees C and 760 degrees C, with higher temperatures recorded at high fuel loads and ambient temperatures, whereas lower temperatures were recorded at high relative humidity. Fire temperatures did not vary with fuel moisture or wind speed. Soil temperatures varied between <79 degrees C and 302 degrees C and were positively correlated with ground-level fire temperatures. Results from the study imply that fuel loads in forested areas have to be reduced to ensure low intensity fires in the dry season. Low fire temperatures would ensure lower mortality of above-ground saplings and minimal damage to root stocks of tree species that would maintain the regenerative capacity of a tropical dry forest subject to dry season wildfires.