Biomarkers in Cardiology - Part 2: In Coronary Heart Disease, Valve Disease and Special Situations

Cardiovascular diseases are the main causes of mortality and morbidity in Brazil. Their primary and secondary preventions are a priority for the health system and require multiple approaches for increased effectiveness. Biomarkers are tools used to identify with greater accuracy high-risk individuals, establish a faster diagnosis, guide treatment, and determine prognosis. This review aims to highlight the importance of biomarkers in clinical cardiology practice and raise relevant points regarding their application and perspectives for the next few years. This document was divided into two parts. This second part addresses the application of biomarkers in coronary heart disease, valvular diseases, cardio-oncology, pulmonary embolism, and cardiorenal syndrome.

Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation and Morbidity and Mortality-Related Factors: a 5-Year Experience in Brazil

Abstract Background: Transcatheter aortic valve implantation has become an option for high-surgical-risk patients with aortic valve disease. Objective: To evaluate the in-hospital and one-year follow-up outcomes of transcatheter aortic valve implantation. Methods: Prospective cohort study of transcatheter aortic valve implantation cases from July 2009 to February 2015. Analysis of clinical and procedural variables, correlating them with in-hospital and one-year mortality. Results: A total of 136 patients with a mean age of 83 years (80-87) underwent heart valve implantation; of these, 49% were women, 131 (96.3%) had aortic stenosis, one (0.7%) had aortic regurgitation and four (2.9%) had prosthetic valve dysfunction. NYHA functional class was III or IV in 129 cases (94.8%). The baseline orifice area was 0.67 ± 0.17 cm2 and the mean left ventricular-aortic pressure gradient was 47.3±18.2 mmHg, with an STS score of 9.3% (4.8%-22.3%). The prostheses implanted were self-expanding in 97% of cases. Perioperative mortality was 1.5%; 30-day mortality, 5.9%; in-hospital mortality, 8.1%; and one-year mortality, 15.5%. Blood transfusion (relative risk of 54; p = 0.0003) and pulmonary arterial hypertension (relative risk of 5.3; p = 0.036) were predictive of in-hospital mortality. Peak C-reactive protein (relative risk of 1.8; p = 0.013) and blood transfusion (relative risk of 8.3; p = 0.0009) were predictive of 1-year mortality. At 30 days, 97% of patients were in NYHA functional class I/II; at one year, this figure reached 96%. Conclusion: Transcatheter aortic valve implantation was performed with a high success rate and low mortality. Blood transfusion was associated with higher in-hospital and one-year mortality. Peak C-reactive protein was associated with one-year mortality.

Incidência do reumatismo (febre reumática, reumatismo infecioso específico) no Rio de Janeiro

1 – A close inquiry into 6700 post mortem examinations reveals amongst them 589 cases of endocarditis which, as causa mortis, thus concur with an 8.82% score. 2 – As to their etiology, the endocarditis cases are classified in: Rheumatic E………………417cases or 6.22% of the necropsies; Syphilitic E……………….106 cases or 1.58% of the necropsies; Malignant E………………….66 cases or 0.98% of the necropsies . 3 – With the exception of the cases of syphilitic endocarditis, or aortic endocarditis connected with syphilitic changes, as well as of malignant (bacterial) endocarditis, 417 cases of rheumatic endocarditis are left which constitute 6.22% of the total amount of the post mortem examinations and 70.79% of the endocarditis cases. 4 – As to their anatomical location, the cases of rheumatic endocarditis are distributed as follows: Valvular E………..396 cases or 94.96% of the endocarditis cases; Mural E………..21 cases or 5.04% of the endocarditis cases; 5 – As to valvular changes, the following location was observed: Mitral E…………….156 cases or 39.39%; Aortic E……………120 cases or 30.30%; Tricuspid E…………10 cases or 2.51%; Pulmonary E…………2 cases or 0.50%; Mitral-aortic E……….88 cases or 22.22%; Mitral-tricuspid E………….10 cases or 2.51%; Mitral-tricuspid-aortic E…………9 cases or 2.27%; Mitral-tricuspid-pulmonary E………….1 cases or 0.25%. 6 – As to sex, 59.21% are males and 40.70% females. As regards mitral endocarditis, the incidence for both sexes is practically one and the same (49.55% of males and 50.47% of females), whilst as regards aortic endocarditis 74.16% of males and 26.84% of females are affected by. 7 – As to colour: White……..50.24% of the cases; Black……………28.50% of the cases; Brown……………21.25% of the cases. 8 – As to nationality: Brazilians…………81.86% of the cases; Aliens…………..18.13% of the cases. 9 – As to age: 0 to 10 years…………7 cases, 51 to 60 years……57 cases; 11 to 20 years……..33 cases, 61 to 70 years……51 cases; 21 to 30 years……..64 cases, 71 to 80 years……..21 cases; 31 to 40 years……..79 cases, 81 to 90 years……1 cases; 41 to 50 years…………58 cases, 91 to 100 years……..2 cases.

Clínica e terapêutica da doença de Chagas

1 - Baseados na experiência adquirida nos últimos cinco anos em Bambuí, Minas Gerais, onde mais de seiscentos casos de doença de Chagas tém sido estudados, os autores fazem uma revisão das manifestações clínicas desta doença. mencionam alguns dados sôbre a incidência da esquizotripanose e chamam a atenção para a importância social desta moléstia. 2 - Sugerem a seguinte sistematização das fórmas clinicas da esquizotripanose: a) Forma aguda; b) Formas crônicas: 1 - Forma indeterminada (cardiacos potenciais), 2 - Forma cardíaca (cardiopatia crônica). Os autores não encontraram no material estudado em Bambuí casos classificaveis como forma nervosa crônica. 3 - Apresentam evidências de ordem clínica e experimental que justificam admitir-se a cardiopatia crônica da doença de Chagas como entidade clinica definida. 4 - As manifestações da infecção aguda são estudadas à luz da experiência adquirida com os 103 casos agudos diagnosticados em Bambuí. Dois tipos de fenômenos edematosos podem ocorrer em pacientes com esquizotripanose aguda: o edema local, de porta de entrada do parasito, e o edema generalizado (o chamado "mixedema"). A patogenia dêste último é revista e sugere-se que ele seja devido a uma hipoproteinemia. O edema local parece de natureza inflamatória. As manifestações da cardiopatia aguda da doença de Chagas são descritas. Ritmo de galope, aumento da area cardíaca (em alguns casos devido a transudato pericárdico), prolongamento do espaço P-R, alterações primárias da onda T e extra-sístoles ventriculares - constituem os sinais mais importantes para o diagnóstico da cardiopatia aguda. Bloqueio de ramo direito foi encontrado em três casos fatais de cardiopatia aguda, um dos quais apresentou também pronunciado desnivelamento de ST (padrão de injúria). A morte durante a infecção aguda é usualmente precedida por manifestações convulsivas. Na maioria dos casos as manifestações, da infecção inicial regridem e o paciente passa à condição de cronicidade em aparente cura espontânea. Esta, entretanto, parece não ocorrer. 5 - Pacientes com infecção crônica e sem evidências de comprimento cardíaco são classificados como cardíacos potenciais ou forma crônica indeterminada. A infecção em regra permanece ativa e os sinais da cardiopatia podem desenvolver-se mais tarde. 6 - A cardiopatia crônica é usualmente manifestação tardia da infecção. Ela incide em cerca de 50% dos pacientes com infecção crônica. Suas manifestações dependem da extensão das alterações miocárdicas. Palpitações, dispnéia, crises convulsivo-sincopais (bloqueio A-V intenso), precordialgias atípicas e dôr no hipocôndrio direito (congestão passiva do fígado) são os sintomas mais comuns. Alguns casos não apresentam sintomas, o coração não se mostra aumentado e a única evidência da cardiopatia é fornecida pelo eletrocardiograma (cardiopatia assintomática). Irregularidades do ritmo cardiaco, desdobramento da 2ª bulha no foco pulmonar e ritmo de galope são achados auscultatórios frequentes. O aumento do coração é de grau variavel; ele atinge a todas as cavidades cardíacas. Doentes com insuficiência cardíaca em regra apresentam aumento pronunciado do coração. Predominam sinais de dilatação cardíaca sôbre os de hipertrofia. Não se encontram sinais de lesão valvular ou de alterações estruturais dos grandes vasos. A pressão arterial é usualmente normal; em casos de insuficiência cardíaca pode a pressão sistólica estar reduzida e a direfencial ser muito pequena. Sinais de insuficiência valvular funcional são muito comuns em casos com insuficiência cardiaca. Usualmente do tipo direito ou do tipo bilateral, a insuficiência cardiaca raramente assume o tipo insuficiência ventricular esquerda isolada. Na grande maioria dos casos o eletrocardiograma evidencia distúrbios da condução ou da formação do estímulo, ou ambos. Extrasistoles ventriculares, bloqueio de ramo direito, bloqueios A-V de todos os graus e altrações atípicas do complexo ventricular são os achados eletrocardiográficos mais importantes. O bloqueio de ramo direito é excepcionalmente comum neste tipo de cardiopatia e possúe grande valor diagnóstico em areas endêmicas. Os critérios para o diagnóstico diferencial com outros tipos de cardiopatia crônica são expostos. A evolução da cardiopatia crônica é variável, dependendo principalmente da atividade da infecção. A sobrevida é geralmente longa; entretanto, a maioria dos doentes morre antes dos 50 anos de idade. O prognóstico depende principalmente de gráu de aumento do coração e de redução da sua capacidade funcional, do tipo de arritmia presente e do potencial evolutivo da infecção crônica. A morte súbita é muito comum nesta cardiopatia; a maioria dos doentes, porém, morre em insuficiencia cardiaca. Não se dispõe ainda de medicamento eficaz para o tratamento etiológico da doença de Chagas. No tratamento da insuficiência cardíaca da cardiopatia crônica da doença de Chagas obtém-se frequentemente melhores resultados com a estrofantina ou a ouabaina do que com a digital.

PulseCath iVAC 3LTM hemodynamic performance for simple assisted flow.

The PulseCath iVAC 3L? left ventricular assist device is an option to treat transitory left heart failure or dysfunction post-cardiac surgery. Assisted blood flow should reach up to 3 l/min. In the present in vitro model exact pump flow, depending on various frequencies and afterload was examined. Optimal flow was achieved with inflation/deflation frequencies of about 70-80/min. The maximal flow rate was achieved at about 2.5 l/min with a minimal afterload of 22 mmHg. Handling of the device was easy due to the connection to a standard intra-aortic balloon pump console. With increasing afterload (up to a simulated mean systemic pressure of 66 mmHg) flow rate and cardiac support are in some extent limited.

Primary isolated aortic valve surgery in octogenarians.

We reviewed our surgery registry, to identify predictive risk factors for operative results, and to analyse the long-term survival outcome in octogenarians operated for primary isolated aortic valve replacement (AVR). A total of 124 consecutive octogenarians underwent open AVR from January 1990 to December 2005. Combined procedures and redo surgery were excluded. Selected variables were studied as risk factors for hospital mortality and early neurological events. A follow-up (FU; mean FU time: 77 months) was obtained (90% complete), and Kaplan-Meier plots were used to determine survival rates. The mean age was 82+/-2.2 (range: 80-90 years; 63% females). Of the group, four patients (3%) required urgent procedures, 10 (8%) had a previous myocardial infarction, six (5%) had a previous coronary angioplasty and stenting, 13 patients (10%) suffered from angina and 59 (48%) were in the New York Heart Association (NYHA) class III-IV. We identified 114 (92%) degenerative stenosis, six (5%) post-rheumatic stenosis and four (3%) active endocarditis. The predicted mortality calculated by logistic European System for Cardiac Operative Risk Evaluation (EuroSCORE) was 12.6+/-5.7%, and the observed hospital mortality was 5.6%. Causes of death included severe cardiac failure (four patients), multi-organ failure (two) and sepsis (one). Complications were transitory neurological events in three patients (2%), short-term haemodialysis in three (2%), atrial fibrillation in 60 (48%) and six patients were re-operated for bleeding. Atrio-ventricular block, myocardial infarction or permanent stroke was not detected. The age at surgery and the postoperative renal failure were predictors for hospital mortality (p value <0.05), whereas we did not find predictors for neurological events. The mean FU time was 77 months (6.5 years) and the mean age of surviving patients was 87+/-4 years (81-95 years). The actuarial survival estimates at 5 and 10 years were 88% and 50%, respectively. Our experience shows good short-term results after primary isolated standard AVR in patients more than 80 years of age. The FU suggests that aortic valve surgery in octogenarians guarantees satisfactory long-term survival rates and a good quality of life, free from cardiac re-operations. In the era of catheter-based aortic valve implantation, open-heart surgery for AVR remains the standard of care for healthy octogenarians.

Sonication of removed breast implants for improved detection of subclinical infection.

BACKGROUND: Capsular fibrosis is a severe complication after breast implantation with an uncertain etiology. Microbial colonization of the prosthesis is hypothesized as a possible reason for the low-grade infection and subsequent capsular fibrosis. Current diagnostic tests consist of intraoperative swabs and tissue biopsies. Sonication of removed implants may improve the diagnosis of implant infection by detachment of biofilms from the implant surface. METHODS: Breast implants removed from patients with Baker grades 3 and 4 capsular contracture were analyzed by sonication, and the resulting sonication fluid was quantitatively cultured. RESULTS: This study investigated 22 breast implants (6 implants with Baker 3 and 16 implants with Baker 4 capsular fibrosis) from 13 patients. The mean age of the patients was 49 years (range, 31-76 years). The mean implant indwelling time was 10.4 years (range, 3 months to 30 years). Of the 22 implants, 12 were used for breast reconstruction and 10 for aesthetic procedures. The implants were located subglandularly (n = 12), submuscularly (n = 6), and subcutaneously (n = 4). Coagulase-negative staphylococci, Propionibacterium acnes, or both were detected in the sonication fluid cultures of nine implants (41%), eight of which grew significant numbers of microorganisms (>100 colonies/ml of sonication fluid). CONCLUSIONS: Sonication detected bacteria in 41% of removed breast implants. The identified bacteria belonged to normal skin flora. Further investigation is needed to determine any causal relation between biofilms and capsular fibrosis.

Coronary magnetic resonance angiography for assessment of the stent lumen: a phantom study.

PURPOSE: To evaluate the feasibility of visualizing the stent lumen using coronary magnetic resonance angiography in vitro. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Nineteen different coronary stents were implanted in plastic tubes with an inner diameter of 3 mm. The tubes were positioned in a plastic container filled with gel and included in a closed flow circuit (constant flow 18 cm/sec). The magnetic resonance images were obtained with a dual inversion fast spin-echo sequence. For intraluminal stent imaging, subtraction images were calculated from scans with and without flow. Subsequently, intraluminal signal properties were objectively assessed and compared. RESULTS: As a function of the stent type, various degrees of in-stent signal attenuation were observed. Tantalum stents demonstrated minimal intraluminal signal attenuation. For nitinol stents, the stent lumen could be identified, but the intraluminal signal was markedly reduced. Steel stents resulted in the most pronounced intraluminal signal voids. CONCLUSIONS: With the present technique, radiofrequency penetration into the stents is strongly influenced by the stent material. Thesefindings may have important implicationsforfuture stent design and stent imaging strategies.

Clinical review: practical recommendations on the management of perioperative heart failure in cardiac surgery.

Acute cardiovascular dysfunction occurs perioperatively in more than 20% of cardiosurgical patients, yet current acute heart failure (HF) classification is not applicable to this period. Indicators of major perioperative risk include unstable coronary syndromes, decompensated HF, significant arrhythmias and valvular disease. Clinical risk factors include history of heart disease, compensated HF, cerebrovascular disease, presence of diabetes mellitus, renal insufficiency and high-risk surgery. EuroSCORE reliably predicts perioperative cardiovascular alteration in patients aged less than 80 years. Preoperative B-type natriuretic peptide level is an additional risk stratification factor. Aggressively preserving heart function during cardiosurgery is a major goal. Volatile anaesthetics and levosimendan seem to be promising cardioprotective agents, but large trials are still needed to assess the best cardioprotective agent(s) and optimal protocol(s). The aim of monitoring is early detection and assessment of mechanisms of perioperative cardiovascular dysfunction. Ideally, volume status should be assessed by 'dynamic' measurement of haemodynamic parameters. Assess heart function first by echocardiography, then using a pulmonary artery catheter (especially in right heart dysfunction). If volaemia and heart function are in the normal range, cardiovascular dysfunction is very likely related to vascular dysfunction. In treating myocardial dysfunction, consider the following options, either alone or in combination: low-to-moderate doses of dobutamine and epinephrine, milrinone or levosimendan. In vasoplegia-induced hypotension, use norepinephrine to maintain adequate perfusion pressure. Exclude hypovolaemia in patients under vasopressors, through repeated volume assessments. Optimal perioperative use of inotropes/vasopressors in cardiosurgery remains controversial, and further large multinational studies are needed. Cardiosurgical perioperative classification of cardiac impairment should be based on time of occurrence (precardiotomy, failure to wean, postcardiotomy) and haemodynamic severity of the patient's condition (crash and burn, deteriorating fast, stable but inotrope dependent). In heart dysfunction with suspected coronary hypoperfusion, an intra-aortic balloon pump is highly recommended. A ventricular assist device should be considered before end organ dysfunction becomes evident. Extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation is an elegant solution as a bridge to recovery and/or decision making. This paper offers practical recommendations for management of perioperative HF in cardiosurgery based on European experts' opinion. It also emphasizes the need for large surveys and studies to assess the optimal way to manage perioperative HF in cardiac surgery.

An objective anisotropic elastic plastic model and Algorithm applicable to bone mechanics

The implicit projection algorithm of isotropic plasticity is extended to an objective anisotropic elastic perfectly plastic model. The recursion formula developed to project the trial stress on the yield surface, is applicable to any non linear elastic law and any plastic yield function.A curvilinear transverse isotropic model based on a quadratic elastic potential and on Hill's quadratic yield criterion is then developed and implemented in a computer program for bone mechanics perspectives. The paper concludes with a numerical study of a schematic bone-prosthesis system to illustrate the potential of the model.

Stent graft exclusion of a ruptured mycotic popliteal pseudoaneurysm complicating sternoclavicular joint infection.

A mycotic pseudoaneurysm of the popliteal artery is usually a consequence of septic embolization and often a result of bacterial endocarditis. Conventional treatment is surgical and avoids the placement of foreign material in infected sites. Here we report our treatment of a 59-year-old man who presented with a rupture of a mycotic pseudoaneurysm of the popliteal artery due to septic embolism from sternoclavicular infectious arthritis. Radiological investigations are included. This is the first documented case of septic arthritis complicated by a rupture of a mycotic popliteal false aneurysm and treated using an endovascular procedure. Combining endovascular stent grafts with evacuation of the joint abscess and antibiotic therapy can offer a safe alternative for frail and unstable patients.