Fine root dry matter relative to mango (Mangifera indica) tree scion size grafted on size-controlling rootstocks, is negatively related to scion growth rate

Knowledge of root dry matter (DM) allocation, in relation to differing vigour conferred by rootstock cultivars, is required to understand the structural relationships between rootstock and scion. We investigated the mass of roots (four size classes up to 23 mm diameter) by coring proximal to five polyembryonic mango rootstock cultivars known to differ in their effects on the vigour and productivity of scion cultivar ‘Kensington Pride’, in a field trial of 13-year-old trees. Significant differences in fine (<0.64 and 0.64–1.88 mm diameter) and small (1.88–7.50 mm) root DM contents were observed between rootstock cultivars. There was a complex relationship between the amount of feeder (fine and small size classes) roots and scion size (trunk cross sectional area, TCSA), with intermediate size trees on rootstock MYP having the most feeder roots, while the smallest trees, on the rootstock Vellaikulamban had the least of these roots. Across rootstock cultivars, tree vigour (TCSA growth rate) was negatively and significantly related to the ratio of fine root DM/scion TCSA, suggesting this may be a useful indicator of the vigour that different rootstocks confer on the scion. In contrast non-ratio root DM and scion TCSA results had no significant relationships. The significant rootstock effects on orchard root growth and tree size could not be predicted from earlier differences in nursery seedling vigour, nor did seedling vigour predict root DM allocation.

Letters and receipts from Sir Moses Montefiore

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Kriegs-Tagebuch 1914-1917

World War I diary of the physician Nathan Wolf

Vähemmistövaltiokirkon synty : Ortodoksisen kirkkokunnan ja valtion suhteiden muotoutuminen Suomessa 1917-1922

The Birth of the Minority State Church Development of the legal relationship between the state of Finland and the Finnish Orthodox Church 1917 1922 Mika Nokelainen, University of Helsinki, Finland. The present research seeks to explain how the legal relationship developed between the state of Finland and the Orthodox Church of Finland. The main focus is on three statutes: 1) the Statute of the Orthodox Church in Finland as stated by Prime Minister J. K. Paasikivi s cabinet in November 1918, 2) The Republican Constitution of July 1919 and 3) The Freedom of Religion Act of 1923. This study examines how different political goals influenced the three statutes mentioned above. Another important factor that is taken into account is the attitude of the Lutheran Church of Finland, the church of the national majority, towards the Orthodox minority and its judicial position in the country. Finland became independent in December 1917, in the aftermath of the November Revolution in Russia. The Orthodox Church already had hundreds of years of history in Finland. In the 19th century, several statutes by emperors of Russia had made the Orthodox Church an official state church of Finland. Due to the long history of the Orthodox Church in Finland, Prime Minister Paasikivi s cabinet made the decision to support the church in the spring of 1918. Furthermore, the cabinet s goal to occupy East Karelia increased its willingness to support the church. The Finnish-national Orthodox Church was needed to educate the East-Karelians. A new statute on the Orthodox Church in Finland came into force in November 1918, reorganising the administration, economy and legal relationship between the church and state in Finland. With this statue, the cabinet gained some authority over the church. Sections of this statute made possible, for example, the cabinet s interference in the internal affairs of the church. The Republican Constitution of 1919 included the principle of freedom of religion. The state, which previously had been Lutheran, now became non-denominational. However, the Republican Constitution explicitly mentioned the Lutheran as well as the Orthodox Church, which indirectly confirmed the position of the Orthodox Church as the second state church of Finland. This position was finally confirmed by the Freedom of Religion Act in 1923. In general, the Lutheran Church of Finland did not resist the judicial position of the Orthodox Church. However, some Lutherans regarded the Orthodox Church with suspicion because of its intimate connection with Russia.

Draft of letter to Sir Moses Montefiore on the death of his wife

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Acknowledgement of Jacques Judah Lyons' letter by Sir Moses Montefiore

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Draft of letter by Jacques Judah Lyons to Sir Moses Montefiore, sending him payment for the Jews of Palestine, and acknowledgement

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Copy of letter from Jacques Judah Lyons to Sir Moses Montefiore enclosing bill of exchange for Palestinian Jews

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Luonnollisen lain sisältö Herbert Olssonin Luther-tulkinnassa

Tutkielmassa selvitetään Herbert Olssonin käsitystä luonnollisen lain sisällöstä, sen suhteesta rakkauden vaatimukseen ja kultaiseen sääntöön. Lähteinä ovat Olssonin kaikki Lutheria käsittelevät tekstit, keskeisimpinä hänen väitöskirjansa Grundproblemet i Luthers socialetik sekä pääteoksensa Schöpfung, Vernunft und Gesetz in Luthers Theologie . Tutkielma jakaantuu johdannon jälkeen taustalukuun, kolmeen analyysilukuun ja loppukatsaukseen, jossa esitellään tutkimuksen tulokset. Taustaluvussa tehdään katsaus luonnollisen lain tulkintahistoriaan aikaisemmassa Luther-tutkimuksessa. Luvussa tulevat ilmi erot pohjoismaisen ja mannereurooppalaisen Luther-tutkimuksen välillä, edellisen painottaessa vahvasti luonnollista lakia, sen identtisyyttä ilmoitetun lain ja rakkauden lain kanssa sekä sen universaalisuutta kaiken moraalisen toiminnan ohjaajana. Tämän jälkeen, luvussa kolme tutkitaan systemaattisen analyysin avulla Olssonin tulkintaa Lutherin luonnonoikeuskäsityksistä sekä luonnollisen käsitteestä ja luodaan pohjaa seuraaville tutkimusluvuille. Luvuissa neljä ja viisi käsitellään luonnollista lakia sinällään, ensin Olssonin väitöskirjasta ja sen jälkeen hänen myöhemmästä tuotannostaan välittyvän kuvan kautta. Jo alusta asti Olssonin tulkintaa leimaa käsitys siitä, että luonnollinen laki kuuluu kaikille ihmisille, se on sisällöltään identtinen dekalogin ja muun ilmoitetun lain kanssa, ja että sen vaatimus voidaan tiivistää rakkauden vaatimukseksi, ts. kultaiseksi säännöksi. Kultainen sääntö koskee Olssonilla sekä suhdetta lähimmäiseen että Jumalaan, kun sen aiemmin ajateltiin liittyvän vain lähimmäissuhteeseen. Olsson ei kuitenkaan vedä kovin monia johtopäätöksiä siitä, kuinka kultainen sääntö suhteessa Jumalaan pitäisi ymmärtää. Ensisijaisesti luonnollisen lain mukaan eläminen vaikuttaa olevan Olssonin tulkinnassa samaa kuin Jumalan tahdon mukaan eläminen. Tästä seuraa kysymys, millainen on Jumalan tahto ja sitä kautta Jumalan luonto, johon luonnollisen lain oletetaan viittaavan. Tutkimuksessa tullaan siihen tulokseen, että Olsson ei oleta Jumalan luonnon olevan lahjoittava rakkaus. Myöskään luonnollinen laki ei vaadi ihmistä luopumaan hyvän tavoittelusta, vaan se juuri vaatii suuntautumista kohti hyvää. Näin ollen Olssonin tulkinnan taustalla ei ole lahjoittavan rakkauden malli luomakunnan järjestyksenä, vaan Augustinukselta ja skolastikoilta tuttu ordo caritatis -malli. Ihmisessä reaalisesti läsnä oleva, pyyteettömästi palveleva Kristus ei tästä syystä sovi Olssonin tulkintaan lainkaan, ja näin ollen hänen käsityksensä vanhurskaudesta on oltava lähinnä forenssinen, ei efektiivinen. Ylipäätään Jumalan ja ihmisen suhteessa on hänellä kyse tahdon suhteesta, ei ontologisesta Kristuksen ja ihmisen yhdistymisestä. Lahjoittavan rakkauden ja Jumala-suhteen ontologisen ulottuvuuden puuttumisen takia siis Olssonin Luther-kuva muodostuu voluntaristiseksi, Jumalan absoluuttista tahtoa korostavaksi. Toisaalta hänen tulkintansa saa myös skolastisia painotuksia, johtuen juuri hyvään suuntautuvan rakkauden korostamisesta. Kultainen sääntö vaikuttaa olevan enemmän vastavuoroisuuden sääntö kuin pyyteettömän rakkauden sääntö. Summa summarum: mainituista syistä johtuen luonnollisen lain, rakkauden vaatimuksen ja kultaisen säännön sisällöllinen ykseys jää Olssonilla hänen tavoitteistaan huolimatta saavuttamatta.

Lignin biosynthesis in Norway spruce: from a model system to the tree

Lignin is a hydrophobic polymer that is synthesised in the secondary cell walls of all vascular plants. It enables water conduction through the stem, supports the upright growth habit and protects against invading pathogens. In addition, lignin hinders the utilisation of the cellulosic cell walls of plants in pulp and paper industry and as forage. Lignin precursors are synthesised in the cytoplasm through the phenylpropanoid pathway, transported into the cell wall and oxidised by peroxidases or laccases to phenoxy radicals that couple to form the lignin polymer. This study was conducted to characterise the lignin biosynthetic pathway in Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). We focused on the less well-known polymerisation stage, to identify the enzymes and the regulatory mechanisms that are involved. Available data for lignin biosynthesis in gymnosperms is scarce and, for example, the latest improvements in precursor biosynthesis have only been verified in herbaceous plants. Therefore, we also wanted to study in detail the roles of individual gene family members during developmental and stress-induced lignification, using EST sequencing and real-time RT-PCR. We used, as a model, a Norway spruce tissue culture line that produces extracellular lignin into the culture medium, and showed that lignin polymerisation in the tissue culture depends on peroxidase activity. We identified in the culture medium a significant NADH oxidase activity that could generate H2O2 for peroxidases. Two basic culture medium peroxidases were shown to have high affinity to coniferyl alcohol. Conservation of the putative substrate-binding amino acids was observed when the spruce peroxidase sequences were compared with other peroxidases with high affinity to coniferyl alcohol. We also used different peroxidase fractions to produce synthetic in vitro lignins from coniferyl alcohol; however, the linkage pattern of the suspension culture lignin could not be reproduced in vitro with the purified peroxidases, nor with the full complement of culture medium proteins. This emphasised the importance of the precursor radical concentration in the reaction zone, which is controlled by the cells through the secretion of both the lignin precursors and the oxidative enzymes to the apoplast. In addition, we identified basic peroxidases that were reversibly bound to the lignin precipitate. They could be involved, for example, in the oxidation of polymeric lignin, which is required for polymer growth. The dibenzodioxocin substructure was used as a marker for polymer oxidation in the in vitro polymerisation studies, as it is a typical substructure in wood lignin and in the suspension culture lignin. Using immunolocalisation, we found the structure mainly in the S2+S3 layers of the secondary cell walls of Norway spruce tracheids. The structure was primarily formed during the late phases of lignification. Contrary to the earlier assumptions, it appears to be a terminal structure in the lignin macromolecule. Most lignin biosynthetic enzymes are encoded for by several genes, all of which may not participate in lignin biosynthesis. In order to identify the gene family members that are responsible for developmental lignification, ESTs were sequenced from the lignin-forming tissue culture and developing xylem of spruce. Expression of the identified lignin biosynthetic genes was studied using real-time RT-PCR. Candidate genes for developmental lignification were identified by a coordinated, high expression of certain genes within the gene families in all lignin-forming tissues. However, such coordinated expression was not found for peroxidase genes. We also studied stress-induced lignification either during compression wood formation by bending the stems or after Heterobasidion annosum infection. Based on gene expression profiles, stress-induced monolignol biosynthesis appeared similar to the developmental process, and only single PAL and C3H genes were specifically up-regulated by stress. On the contrary, the up-regulated peroxidase genes differed between developmental and stress-induced lignification, indicating specific responses.

Mechanical response of the tympanal membranes of the tree cricket Oecanthus henryi

Crickets have two tympanal membranes on the tibiae of each foreleg. Among several field cricket species of the genus Gryllus (Gryllinae), the posterior tympanal membrane (PTM) is significantly larger than the anterior membrane (ATM). Laser Doppler vibrometric measurements have shown that the smaller ATM does not respond as much as the PTM to sound. Hence the PTM has been suggested to be the principal tympanal acoustic input to the auditory organ. In tree crickets (Oecanthinae), the ATM is slightly larger than the PTM. Both membranes are structurally complex, presenting a series of transverse folds on their surface, which are more pronounced on the ATM than on the PTM. The mechanical response of both membranes to acoustic stimulation was investigated using microscanning laser Doppler vibrometry. Only a small portion of the membrane surface deflects in response to sound. Both membranes exhibit similar frequency responses, and move out of phase with each other, producing compressions and rarefactions of the tracheal volume backing the tympanum. Therefore, unlike field crickets, tree crickets may have four instead of two functional tympanal membranes. This is interesting in the context of the outstanding question of the role of spiracular inputs in the auditory system of tree crickets.

Relationship between annual rainfall and tree mortality in a tropical dry forest: Results of a 19-year study at Mudumalai, southern India

Variability in rainfall is known to be a major influence on the dynamics of tropical forests, especially rates and patterns of tree mortality. In tropical dry forests a number of contributing factors to tree mortality, including dry season fire and herbivory by large herbivorous mammals, could be related to rainfall patterns, while loss of water potential in trees during the dry season or a wet season drought could also result in enhanced rates of death. While tree mortality as influenced by severe drought has been examined in tropical wet forests there is insufficient understanding of this process in tropical dry forests. We examined these causal factors in relation to inter-annual differences in rainfall in causing tree mortality within a 50-ha Forest Dynamics Plot located in the tropical dry deciduous forests of Mudumalai, southern India, that has been monitored annually since 1988. Over a 19-year period (1988-2007) mean annual mortality rate of all stems >1 cm dbh was 6.9 +/- 4.6% (range = 1.5-17.5%); mortality rates broadly declined from the smaller to the larger size classes with the rates in stems >30 cm dbh being among the lowest recorded in tropical forest globally. Fire was the main agent of mortality in stems 1-5 cm dbh, elephant-herbivory in stems 5-10 cm dbh, and other natural causes in stems > 10 cm dbh. Elephant-related mortality did not show any relationship to rainfall. On the other hand, fire-related mortality was significantly negatively correlated to quantity of rainfall during the preceding year. Mortality due to other causes in the larger stem sizes was significantly negatively correlated to rainfall with a 2-3-year lag, suggesting that water deficit from mild or prolonged drought enhanced the risk of death but only with a time lag that was greater than similar lags in tree mortality observed in other forest types. In this respect, tropical dry forests growing in regions of high rainfall variability may have evolved greater resistance to rainfall deficit as compared to tropical moist or temperate forests but are still vulnerable to drought-related mortality.