Changing motorcycle rider safety attitudes and motives for risk taking : process evaluation of a rider training intervention

Risk-taking behaviour by motorcyclists has been shown to contribute to a substantial proportion of road crashes in Australia and abroad. Concern has been expressed that traditional motorcycle licence training programs do not sufficiently address such behaviour. Accordingly, the Three Steps to Safer Riding program was developed to address risk taking behaviour by riders as an adjunct to existing skills-based rider training. The program was designed to be delivered in a one hour classroom session at the start of training, with a 20 minute debrief to revise the key concepts at the end of training. This paper reports on the key training concepts, methodology and implementation of the pilot program with a major rider training organisation in Queensland and presents findings from a process evaluation. The Three Steps to Safer Riding intervention pilot was delivered to 518 learner riders over a three month period. Follow-up focus groups and one interview with intervention participants (N=18) five to eight months after completion of the program suggest that new riders (absolute novices) embraced and internalised many of the intervention concepts. However, some riders who had previous riding experience prior to training stated these issues were common sense, yet still expressed riding styles that were contrary to some of the key intervention messages. This is discussed in terms of raising awareness of risk issues for motorcyclists versus behaviour change. Additionally, interviews conducted with riding instructors are discussed regarding logistical challenges of implementation, training consistency, skills required to deliver the program, support for the program, and student engagement.

The potential for a web based intervention to improve young adult passenger safety

Young drivers aged 17-24 are consistently overrepresented in motor vehicle crashes. Research has shown that a young driver’s crash risk increases when carrying similarly aged passengers, with fatal crash risk increasing two to three fold with two or more passengers. Recent growth in access to and use of the internet has led to a corresponding increase in the number of web based behaviour change interventions. An increasing body of literature describes the evaluation of web based programs targeting risk behaviours and health issues. Evaluations have shown promise for such strategies with evidence for positive changes in knowledge, attitudes and behaviour. The growing popularity of web based programs is due in part to their wide accessibility, ability for personalised tailoring of intervention messages, and self-direction and pacing of online content. Young people are also highly receptive to the internet and the interactive elements of online programs are particularly attractive. The current study was designed to assess the feasibility for a web based intervention to increase the use of personal and peer protective strategies among young adult passengers. An extensive review was conducted on the development and evaluation of web based programs. Year 12 students were also surveyed about their use of the internet in general and for health and road safety information. All students reported internet access at home or at school, and 74% had searched for road safety information. Additional findings have shown promise for the development of a web based passenger safety program for young adults. Design and methodological issues will be discussed.

The effect of road lane width on cyclist safety in urban areas

Research has shown that road lane width impacts on driver behaviour. This literature review provides guidelines to assist in the design, construction and retrofitting of urban roads to accommodate road users' safety requirements. It focuses on the impacts of lane widths on cyclists and motor vehicle safety behaviour. The literature review commenced with a search of library databases. Peer reviewed articles and road authority (local, state and national) reports were reviewed. The majority of studies investigating the effects of lane width on driver behaviour were simulator based, while research into cycling safety involved data collected from actual traffic environments. Results show that marked road lane width influences perceived task difficulty, risk perception and possibly speed choice. The positioning of cyclists in traffic lanes is influenced by the presence of on-road cycling facilities and the total roadway width. The lateral displacement between bicycle and vehicle is smallest when a bicycle facility is present. Lower, or reduced, vehicle speeds play a significant role in improving bicyclist and pedestrian safety. It is also shown that if road lane widths in urban areas were reduced, to a functional width that was less than the current guidelines of 3.5m, it could result in a safer road environment for all road users.

Enhancing road safety for young drivers : how Graduate Driver Licensing initiatives can complement "anti-hooning" legislation

Street racing and associated (hooning) behaviours have attracted increasing concern in recent years. While New Zealand and all Australian jurisdictions have introduced “antihooning” legislation and allocated significant police resources to managing the problem, there is limited evidence of the road safety implications of hooning. However, international and Australian data suggests that drivers charged with a hooning offence tend to be young males who are accompanied by one or more peers, and hooning-related crashes tend to occur at night. In this regard, there is considerable evidence that drivers under the age of 25 are over-represented in crash statistics, and are particularly vulnerable soon after obtaining a Provisional licence, when driving at night, and when carrying peer-aged passengers. The similarity between the nature of hooning offenders, offences and crashes, and road safety risks for young drivers in general, suggests that hooning is an issue that may be viewed as part of the broader young driver problem. Many jurisdictions have recently implemented a range of evidence-based strategies to address young driver road safety, and this paper will present Queensland crash and offence data to highlight the potential benefit of Graduated Driver Licensing initiatives, such as night driving restrictions and peer-aged passenger restrictions, to related road safety issues, including hooning. An understanding of potential flow-on effects is important for evaluations of anti-hooning legislation and Graduated Driver Licensing programs, and may have implications for future law enforcement resource allocation and policy development.

Identification of barriers to and facilitators for the implementation of occupational road safety initiatives

To explore potential barriers to and facilitators for implementing occupational road safety initiatives, in-depth interviews were conducted with personnel from four major Australian organizations. Twenty-four participants were involved in the interviews comprising 16 front line employees and eight managers. The interviews identified that employees perceived six organizational characteristics as potential barriers to implementing occupational road safety initiatives. These included: prioritisation of production over safety; complacency towards occupational road risks; insufficient resources; diversity; limited employee input in safety decisions; and a perception that road safety initiatives were an unnecessary burden. Of these organizational characteristics, prioritisation of production over safety and complacency were the most frequently cited barriers. In regards to facilitators, participants perceived three organizational characteristics as potential facilitators to implementing occupational road safety initiatives. These included: management commitment; the presence of existing systems that could support the implementation of initiatives; and supportive relationships. Of these organizational characteristics, management commitment was the most frequently cited facilitator.

Clinical efficacy and safety of zoledronic acid in osteoporosis and Paget's disease

Osteoporosis and Paget’s bone disease are the most common diseases of the bone. In addition to glucocorticoid treatment, there are many other secondary causes of osteoporosis. Bisphosphonates are used to treat these bone conditions. Zoledronic acid is the most potent bisphosphonate at inhibiting bone resorption. In osteoporosis, zoledronic acid increases bone mineral density for at least 1 year following a single intravenous administration. The efficacy and safety of zoledronic acid in the treatment of osteoporosis and Paget’s bone disease are reviewed. This article also covers the studies of the effects of zoledronic acid in the bone loss associated with the secondary osteoporosis.

Clinical efficacy and safety of zoledronic acid in prostate and breast cancer

The anti-estrogen treatment for hormone-sensitive breast cancer and the androgen deprivation therapy for prostate cancer can lead to the development of osteoporosis and bone fractures. Metastases associated with prostate and breast cancer can also occur in bone. Bisphosphonates are used in these types of bone dysfunction. Zoledronic acid is the most potent bisphosphonate. In osteoporosis, zoledronic acid inhibits bone reabsorption and increases bone mineral density for at least a year after intravenous administration. The efficacy and safety of zoledronic acid in osteoporosis secondary to hormone-sensitive cancers (prostate and breast), and in the bone metastases associated with these cancers are reviewed.

Barriers to the acceptance of road safety programmes among rural road users : developing a brief intervention

Motorised countries have more fatal road crashes in rural areas than in urban areas. In Australia, over two thirds of the population live in urban areas, yet approximately 55 percent of the road fatalities occur in rural areas (ABS, 2006; Tziotis, Mabbot, Edmonston, Sheehan & Dwyer, 2005). Road and environmental factors increase the challenges of rural driving, but do not fully account for the disparity. Rural drivers are less compliant with recommendations regarding the “fatal four” behaviours of speeding, drink driving, seatbelt non-use and fatigue, and the reasons for their lower apparent receptivity for road safety messages are not well understood. Countermeasures targeting driver behaviour that have been effective in reducing road crashes in urban areas have been less successful in rural areas (FORS, 1995). However, potential barriers to receptivity for road safety information among rural road users have not been systematically investigated. This thesis aims to develop a road safety countermeasure that addresses three areas that potentially affect receptivity to rural road safety information. The first is psychological barriers of road users’ attitudes, including risk evaluation, optimism bias, locus of control and readiness to change. A second area is the timing and method of intervention delivery, which includes the production of a brief intervention and the feasibility of delivering it at a “teachable moment”. The third area under investigation is the content of the brief intervention. This study describes the process of developing an intervention that includes content to address road safety attitudes and improve safety behaviours of rural road users regarding the “fatal four”. The research commences with a review of the literature on rural road crashes, brief interventions, intervention design and implementation, and potential psychological barriers to receptivity. This literature provides a rationale for the development of a brief intervention for rural road safety with a focus on driver attitudes and behaviour. The research is then divided into four studies. The primary aim of Study One and Study Two is to investigate the receptivity of rural drivers to road safety interventions, with a view to identifying barriers to the efficacy of these strategies.

Mobility and safety are conflicting goals for transport policy makers when making decisions about graduated driver licensing

Policy decisions are frequently influenced by more than research results alone. This review examines one road safety countermeasure, graduated driver licensing, in three jurisdictions and identifies how the conflict between mobility and safety goals can influence policy decisions relating to this countermeasure. Evaluations from around the world of graduated driver licensing have demonstrated clear reductions in crashes for young drivers. However, the introduction of this countermeasure may be affected, both positively and negatively, by the conflict some policy makers experience between ensuring individuals remain both mobile and safe as drivers. This review highlights how this conflict in policy decision making can serve to either facilitate or hinder the introduction of graduated driver licensing systems. However, policy makers whose focus on mobility is too strong when compared with safety may be mistaken, with evidence suggesting that after a graduated driver licensing system is introduced young drivers adapt their behaviour to the new system and remain mobile. As a result, policy makers should consciously acknowledge the conflict between mobility and safety and consider an appropriate balance in order to introduce these systems. Improvements to the licensing system can then be made in an incremental manner as the balance between these two priorities change. Policy makers can achieve an appropriate balance by using empirical evidence as a basis for their decisions.

Safety climate and relational conflict in the eyes of team members : examining the role of need for closure

This study was aimed at examining the safety climate and relational conflict within teams at the individual level. A sample of 372 respondents, divided into 50 teams, was used to test our hypothesis. It was proposed - and discovered - that team members’ individual differences in need for closure mitigated the negative relationship between perceptions of team safety climate and team relational conflict. The implications of our findings and the study’s limitations are discussed.

Continuous infusion of ticarcillin-clavulanate for home treatment of serious infections : clinical efficacy, safety, pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics

Continuous infusion (CI) ticarcillin–clavulanate is a potential therapeutic improvement over conventional intermittent dosing because the major pharmacodynamic (PD) predictor of efficacy of β-lactams is the time that free drug levels exceed the MIC. This study incorporated a 6-year retrospective arm evaluating efficacy and safety of CI ticarcillin–clavulanate in the home treatment of serious infections and a prospective arm additionally evaluating pharmacokinetics (PK) and PD. In the prospective arm, steady-state serum ticarcillin and clavulanate levels and MIC testing of significant pathogens were performed. One hundred and twelve patients (median age, 56 years) were treated with a CI dose of 9.3–12.4 g/day and mean CI duration of 18.0 days. Infections treated included osteomyelitis (50 patients), septic arthritis (6), cellulitis (17), pulmonary infections (12), febrile neutropenia (7), vascular infections (7), intra-abdominal infections (2), and Gram-negative endocarditis (2); 91/112 (81%) of patients were cured, 14 (13%) had partial response and 7 (6%) failed therapy. Nine patients had PICC line complications and five patients had drug adverse events. Eighteen patients had prospective PK/PD assessment although only four patients had sufficient data for a full PK/PD evaluation (both serum steady-state drug levels and ticarcillin and clavulanate MICs from a bacteriological isolate), as this was difficult to obtain in home-based patients, particularly as serum clavulanate levels were found to deteriorate rapidly on storage. Three of four patients with matched PK/PD assessment had free drug levels exceeding the MIC of the pathogen. Home CI of ticarcillin–clavulanate is a safe, effective, convenient and practical therapy and is a therapeutic advance over traditional intermittent dosing when used in the home setting.

Assessing the safety of a velocity sourced series elastic actuator using the head injury criterion

The Velocity Sourced Series Elastic Actuator has been proposed as a method for providing safe force or torque based actuation for robots without compromising the actuator performance. In this paper we assess the safety of Velocity Sourced Series Elastic Actuators by measuring the Head Injury Criterion scores for collisions with a model head. The study makes a comparative analysis against stiff, high impedance actuation using the same motor without the series elastic component, showing that the series elastic component brings about a massive reduction in the chance of head injury. The benefits of a collision detection and safe reaction system are shown to be limited to collisions at low speeds, providing greater interaction comfort but not necessarily contributing to safety from injury.

Demonstrating the safety and performance of a velocity sourced series elastic actuator

Actuators with deliberately added compliant elements in the transmission system are often described as improving the safety of the actuator at the detriment of the performance. We show that our variant of the Series Elastic Actuator topology, the Velocity Sourced Series Elastic Actuator, has well defined performance characteristics that make for improvements in safety and performance over conventional high impedance actuators. The improvement in performance was principally achieved by having tight velocity control of the DC motor that acts as the mechanical power source for the actuator. Results for performance are given for point to point transition times, while results for safety are based on empirical assessment of the Head Injury Criterion during collisions.

Safety implications of increased moped and scooter use in an Australian city

Drawing on two studies within a larger program of research into scooter and moped safety in Queensland, Australia, some key safety concerns specific to the use of these vehicles are discussed. A five phase observational study is used to identify distribution of powered two-wheeler (PTW) types in the city centre of Brisbane, Australia’s third largest city. Data were first collected in August 2008, and thereafter at six-monthly intervals. Stationary PTWs were directly observed in designated parking areas. Four focus groups involving 23 Brisbane riders were held in March 2009, aiming to explore perspectives on safety and transport planning in a semi-structured format. Information gathered in the focus groups informed development of a questionnaire targeting a larger sample of scooter and moped riders. The observations made to date indicate that 36% of all PTWs parked in Brisbane’s inner city are either mopeds or larger scooters, with the remaining 64% accounted for by motorcycles (n = 2037). These data suggest that mopeds and scooters are a significant transport mode in Brisbane, yet little is known about their safety relative to that of motorcycles. In focus groups, main motivating factors for scooter or moped use included parking availability, traffic congestion, cost, time-efficiency and enjoyment. Moped riders were generally younger and less experienced than other scooter riders, less likely to wear protective clothing, and less likely to have undertaken rider training. The focus groups have helped to identify some particular safety concerns regarding moped use in a jurisdiction requiring no motorcycle licence or rider training.

The effect of traffic lane widths on the safety of cyclists in urban areas

This literature review examines the relationship between traffic lane widths on the safety of road users. It focuses on the impacts of lane widths on motor vehicle behaviour and cyclists’ safety. The review commenced with a search of available databases. Peer reviewed articles and road authority reports were reviewed, as well as current engineering guidelines. Research shows that traffic lane width influences drivers’ perceived difficulty of the task, risk perception and possibly speed choices. Total roadway width, and the presence of onroad cycling facilities, influence cyclists’ positioning on the road. Lateral displacement between bicycles and vehicles is smallest when a marked bicycle facility is present. Reduced motor vehicle speeds can significantly improve the safety of vulnerable road users, particularly pedestrians and cyclists. It has been shown that if road lane widths on urban roads were reduced, through various mechanisms, it could result in a safety environment for all road users.