The trial: how procedure shapes substance

The rules and the principles of the common law are formed from the cases decided in courts of common law. The unique nature of the evolution of the common law has long been the subject of study. Less frequently studied has been the impact of procedure upon the development of substantive law. This paper examines how the procedures applicable to the trial of a case can affect the substance of the resulting decision. The focus of the examination is the decision in Bell v Lever Bros [1932] AC 161. While the case has long been regarded as a leading, albeit confusing, contract law case it is also greatly concerned with the conduct of litigation. This paper argues that the substantive decision was largely determined by the civil procedure available. Different rules of civil procedure, it is suggested, would have resulted in a better decision in the English law of contract.

Taylor v Caldwell (1863)

A Landmark Case is one which stands out from other less remarkable cases. Landmark status is generally accorded because the case marks the beginning or the end of a course of legal development. Taylor v Caldwell is regarded as a landmark case because it marks the beginning of a legal development: the introduction of the doctrine of frustration into English contract law. This chapter explores the legal and historical background to the case to ascertain if it is a genuine landmark. A closer scrutiny reveals that while the legal significance of the case is exaggerated, the historical significance of the cases reveals an unknown irony: the case is a suitable landmark to the frustration of human endeavours. While the existence of the Surrey Music Hall was brief, it brought insanity, imprisonment, bankruptcy and death to its creators.

Understanding unconscionability in proprietary estoppel

In a series of recent cases, courts have reasserted unconscionability as the basis of proprietary estoppel and in doing so have moved away from the structured form of discretion envisaged in the classic Taylors Fashions formula. In light of these developments, this paper traces the use of unconscionability in estoppel and examines the changing role attributed to the concept. In a parallel development, in exercising their remedial discretion once a claim to estoppel has been established, the courts have emphasised the foundation of estoppel in unconscionability to assert the need for proportionality between the detriment and remedy as ‘the most essential requirement’. Collectively, the cases demonstrate a lack of transparency or consistency, which raises concerns that the courts are descending into a form of individualised discretion. These developments are of particular concern as they come at a time when commentators are predicting a ‘boom’ in estoppel to follow the introduction of electronic conveyancing.

The Mystery of Privity: Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada v Robinson (1915)

This article examines a little known decision of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council: Grand Trunk Railway Company of Canada v Robinson (1915). The examination is historical and it provides a different insight into the understanding of privity of contract, a doctrine central to contract law. The examination reveals a process of trans-Atlantic legal migration in which English law was applied to resolve an Ontario case. The nature of the resolution is surprising because it appears to conflict with the better known decision of the House of Lords, Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre Company, Limited v Selfridge and Company, Limited, which a similarly constituted panel delivered in the same week. This article argues that there was a greater malleability in the resolution of cases concerned with privity than was thought to have existed. It is also argued that the power of Canadian railway capitalism is a significant factor in understanding the legal resolution of the case. Finally, it the article considers the use of English and American precedents relevant to the case. The application of English precedents to the case led to a resolution not entirely befitting Canadian conditions.

Normative-informational positions: a modal-logical approach

This paper is a preliminary investigation into the application of the formal-logical theory of normative positions to the characterisation of normative-informational positions, pertaining to rules that are meant to regulate the supply of information. First, we present the proposed framework. Next, we identify the kinds of nuances and distinctions that can be articulated in such a logical framework. Finally, we show how such nuances can arise in specific regulations. Reference is made to Data Protection Law and Contract Law, among others. The proposed approach is articulated around two essential steps. The first involves identifying the set of possible interpretations that can be given to a particular norm. This is done by using formal methods. The second involves picking out one of these interpretations as the most likely one. This second step can be resolved only by using further information (e.g., the context or other parts of the regulation).

The insurance function of contracts

One of the central problems in contract law is to define the frontier between legal and illegal breaches of promises. The distinction between good and bad faith is perhaps the conceptual tool most commonly used to tell one from the other. Lawyers spend a lot of energy trying to frame better definitions of the concepts of good and bad faith based on principles of ethics or justice, but often pay much less attention to theories dealing with the incentives that can engender good faith behavior in contractual relationships. By describing the economics of what Stiglitz defined as “explicit” and “implicit” insurance, I highlight the “insurance function” hidden in any promise with basically no mathematical notation. My aim is to render the subject intelligible and useful to lawyers with little familiarity with economics.

O acordo de acionistas à luz do Código Civil de 2002

A constatação de grande indeterminação acerca da interpretação da Lei 6.404/76 em conjunto com o Código Civil suscitou o interesse em se discutir, através de um instituto específico da Lei Societária, o acordo de acionistas, contextualizado através de um caso concreto, a aplicação de princípios gerais dos contratos civis à referida lei específica. A separação dos diplomas trouxe uma série de questionamentos quanto à aplicação de princípios, como por exemplo, a boa-fé objetiva, na interpretação da norma societária. Portanto, a natureza contratual do acordo de acionistas, analisado na hipótese em que este não se encontra arquivado na sede da companhia, e sua inteira regulação pela legislação societária, constitui um exemplo paradigmático para emoldurar a referida discussão, promovida também na doutrina e na jurisprudência.

A relação entre o direito internacional e o direito da União Européia após o Acórdão Kadi: o controle da legalidade das resoluções do conselho de segurança da ONU

O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar se é possível ou não o Tribunal de Justiça da União Européia controlar a legalidade das Resoluções do Conselho de Segurança da ONU, à luz do caso Kadi. Com base no posicionamento adotado pelo Tribunais de Justiça da União Européia no caso, cujo fim precípuo é proteger os direitos fundamentais dos indivíduos e garantir o respeito do direito na interpretação e aplicação dos Tratados da União Européia, chega-se à conclusão de que é possível controlar a legalidade das Resoluções do Conselho de Segurança, à luz dos direitos fundamentais e das regras de jus cogens. Tal possibilidade produz efeitos diretos e indiretos, favorecendo uma nova articulação entre o direito da União Européia e o Direito Internacional.

Erro invalidante da dogmática do negócio jurídico

A regulamentação das hipóteses de erro no Direito Obrigacional foi objeto de profunda alteração em razão da nova redação atribuída à matéria pelo novo Código Civil e em razão do novo cenário desenhado pelo princípio da manutenção do contrato. A presente dissertação trata das diferenças entre a regulamentação do erro em face do Código anterior (1916 – “CC/16”, artigos 86 a 113) e do novo Código (2002 – “CC/02”, artigos 138 a 166). Além disso, a dissertação trata sobre as conseqüências advindas do desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro, inclusive sobre eventual indenização. As questões propostas e que subjazem esta dissertação são: em quais situações a parte pode requerer o desfazimento por erro? A existência de erro, somente, é suficiente para que se declare inválido o contrato? E quais são as conseqüências da invalidação do negócio jurídico? Há algum dever indenizatório? As respostas a essas questões serão umas, se analisadas a partir das regras do Código Civil de 1916, e outras, se respondidas com base nas regras do Código Civil de 2002. A dissertação analisa o fato de, em regra, a doutrina apontar como modificação do novo Código Civil a introdução do princípio da proteção da confiança daquele que não agiu em erro. Na verdade, no entanto, essa proteção já era implementada na vigência do Código Civil anterior (CC/16), por meio do dever de indenizar. Portanto, a proteção da outra parte não é novidade introduzida pelo novo Código Civil (CC/02). A tese exposta nesta dissertação aponta para o fato de que, além da proteção da outra parte, a lei protege o contrato em si, como uma forma de proteger o comércio, ou seja, todos os demais contratos que dependem dele, direta ou indiretamente. E essa proteção é colocada em prática ao se dificultar o desfazimento do negócio jurídico por erro. Nesse sentido, o novo Código Civil inovou ao acrescentar um outro requisito para o desfazimento do negócio por erro: a sua recognoscibilidade.

Information asymmetry and transaction costs in a cross-cultural business transaction

The intent of this paper is to provide a practitioners insight into the present and foreseeable future of problem of transaction cost economics related to culture and business etiquette that may increase the of complexity of business communication. We will also explore whether it impacts participant's mindsets regarding opportunistic or passive aggressive behavior. We will study the role of culture, ethics, information asymmetry, and legal systems regarding their importance towards the business contracts and lack of knowledge in local environments. We will make connections to contract theory strategies and objectives and recommend business practices. Furthermore, economic theory explores the role of the impossibility of the perfect contract. Historical and present day operational factors are examined for the determination of forward-looking contract law indications worldwide. This paper is intended provide a practitioners view with a global perspective of a multinational, mid-sized and small corporations giving consideration in a non-partisan and non-nationalistic view, yet examines the individual characteristics of the operational necessities and obligations of any corporation. The study will be general, yet cite specific articles to each argument and give adequate consideration to the intricacies of the global asymmetry of information. This paper defends that corporations of any kind and size should be aware of the risk of international business etiquette and cultural barriers that might jeopardize the savings you could obtain from engaging international suppliers.

La protezione dei diritti sociali nell'ordinamento dell'Unione Europea

This study deals with the protection of social rights in Europe and aims to outline the position currently held by these rights in the EU law. The first two chapters provide an overview of the regulatory framework in which the social rights lie, through the reorganisation of international sources. In particular the international instruments of protection of social rights are taken into account, both at the universal level, due to the activity of the United Nations Organisation and of its specialized agency, the International Labour Organization, and at a regional level, related to the activity of the Council of Europe. Finally an analysis of sources concludes with the reconstruction of the stages of the recognition of social rights in the EU. The second chapter describes the path followed by social rights in the EU: it examines the founding Treaties and subsequent amendments, the Charter of Fundamental Social Rights of Workers of 1989 and, in particularly, the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, the legal status of which was recently treated as the primary law by the Treaty of Lisbon signed in December 2007. The third chapter is, then, focused on the analysis of the substantive aspects of the recognition of the rights made by the EU: it provides a framework of the content and scope of the rights accepted in the Community law by the Charter of Fundamental Rights, which is an important contribution to the location of the social rights among the fundamental and indivisible rights of the person. In the last section of the work, attention is focused on the two profiles of effectiveness and justiciability of social rights, in order to understand the practical implications of the gradual creation of a system of protection of these rights at Community level. Under the first profile, the discussion is focused on the effectiveness in the general context of the mechanisms of implementation of the “second generation” rights, with particular attention to the new instruments and actors of social Europe and the effect of the procedures of soft law. Second part of chapter four, finally, deals with the judicial protection of rights in question. The limits of the jurisprudence of the European Union Court of Justice are more obvious exactly in the field of social rights, due to the gap between social rights and other fundamental rights. While, in fact, the Community Court ensures the maximum level of protection to human rights and fundamental freedoms, social rights are often degraded into mere aspirations of EU institutions and its Member States. That is, the sources in the social field (European Social Charter and Community Charter) represent only the base for interpretation and application of social provisions of secondary legislation, unlike the ECHR, which is considered by the Court part of Community law. Moreover, the Court of Justice is in the middle of the difficult comparison between social values and market rules, of which it considers the need to make a balance: despite hesitancy to recognise the juridical character of social rights, the need of protection of social interests has justified, indeed, certain restrictions to the free movement of goods, freedom to provide services or to Community competition law. The road towards the recognition and the full protection of social rights in the European Union law appears, however, still long and hard, as shown by the recent judgments Laval and Viking, in which the Community court, while enhancing the Nice Charter, has not given priority to fundamental social rights, giving them the role of limits (proportionate and justified) of economic freedoms.

Web advertising. Le comunicazioni commerciali on-line.

La tesi ha ad oggetto lo studio e l’approfondimento delle forme di promozione commerciale presenti in Rete caratterizzate, più che da una normale evoluzione, da continue metamorfosi che ridefiniscono ogni giorno il concetto di pubblicità. L’intento è quello di analizzare il quadro giuridico applicabile alla pubblicità via Web, a fronte della varità di forme e di modalità che essa può assumere. Nel lavoro vengono passate in rassegna le caratteristiche che differenziano la pubblicità commerciale on-line rispetto a quella tradizionale; tra le quali, particolare rilievo assume la capacità d’istaurare una relazione – diretta e non mediata – tra impresa e consumatore. Nel prosieguo viene affrontato il problema dell’individuazione, stante il carattere a-territoriale della Rete, della legge applicabile al web advertising, per poi passare ad una ricognizione delle norme europee ed italiane in materia, senza trascurare quelle emanate in sede di autodisciplina. Ampio spazio è dedicato, infine, all’esame delle diverse e più recenti tecniche di promozione pubblicitaria, di cui sono messi in evidenza gli aspetti tecnico-informatici, imprescindibili ai fini di una corretta valutazione del tema giuridico. In particolare, vengono approfonditi il servizio di posizionamento a pagamento offerto dai principali motori di ricerca (keywords advertising) e gli strumenti di tracciamento dei “comportamenti” on-line degli utenti, che consentono la realizzazione di campagne pubblicitarie mirate (on-line behavioural advertising). Il Web, infatti, non offre più soltanto la possibilità di superare barriere spaziali, linguistiche o temporali e di ampliare la propria sfera di notorietà, ma anche di raggiungere l’utente “interessato” e, pertanto, potenziale acquirente. Di queste nuove realtà pubblicitarie vengono vagliati gli aspetti più critici ed esaminata la disciplina giuridica eventualmente applicabile anche alla luce delle principali decisioni giurisprudenziali nazionali ed europee in materia, nonché delle esperienze giuridiche nord-americane e di tipo autoregolamentare.