Foreword: International Space Science Institute (ISSI) workshop on observing and predicting Earth’s energy flows

The Earth’s climate, as well as planetary climates in general, is broadly regulated by three fundamental parameters: the total solar irradiance, the planetary albedo and the planetary emissivity. Observations from series of different satellites during the last three decades indicate that these three quantities are generally very stable. The total solar irradiation of some 1,361 W/m2 at 1 A.U. varies within 1 W/m2 during the 11-year solar cycle (Fröhlich 2012). The albedo is close to 29 % with minute changes from year to year but with marked zonal differences (Stevens and Schwartz 2012). The only exception to the overall stability is a minor decrease in the planetary emissivity (the ratio between the radiation to space and the radiation from the surface of the Earth). This is a consequence of the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gas amounts making the atmosphere gradually more opaque to long-wave terrestrial radiation. As a consequence, radiation processes are slightly out of balance as less heat is leaving the Earth in the form of thermal radiation than the amount of heat from the incoming solar radiation. Present space-based systems cannot yet measure this imbalance, but the effect can be inferred from the increase in heat in the oceans where most of the heat accumulates. Minor amounts of heat are used to melt ice and to warm the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.

On the available energy of an axisymmetric vortex

A theory of available energy for axisymmetric circulations is presented. The theory is a generalization of the classical theory of available potential energy, in that it accounts for both thermal and angular momentum constraints on the circulation. The generalization relies on the Hamiltonian structure of the (conservative) dynamics, is exact at finite amplitude, and has a local form. Application of the theory is presented for the case of an axisymmetric vortex on an f -plane in the context of the Boussinesq equations.

Constraints on the spectral distribution of energy and enstrophy dissipation in forced two-dimensional turbulence

We study two-dimensional (2D) turbulence in a doubly periodic domain driven by a monoscale-like forcing and damped by various dissipation mechanisms of the form νμ(−Δ)μ. By “monoscale-like” we mean that the forcing is applied over a finite range of wavenumbers kmin≤k≤kmax, and that the ratio of enstrophy injection η≥0 to energy injection ε≥0 is bounded by kmin2ε≤η≤kmax2ε. Such a forcing is frequently considered in theoretical and numerical studies of 2D turbulence. It is shown that for μ≥0 the asymptotic behaviour satisfies ∥u∥12≤kmax2∥u∥2, where ∥u∥2 and ∥u∥12 are the energy and enstrophy, respectively. If the condition of monoscale-like forcing holds only in a time-mean sense, then the inequality holds in the time mean. It is also shown that for Navier–Stokes turbulence (μ=1), the time-mean enstrophy dissipation rate is bounded from above by 2ν1kmax2. These results place strong constraints on the spectral distribution of energy and enstrophy and of their dissipation, and thereby on the existence of energy and enstrophy cascades, in such systems. In particular, the classical dual cascade picture is shown to be invalid for forced 2D Navier–Stokes turbulence (μ=1) when it is forced in this manner. Inclusion of Ekman drag (μ=0) along with molecular viscosity permits a dual cascade, but is incompatible with the log-modified −3 power law for the energy spectrum in the enstrophy-cascading inertial range. In order to achieve the latter, it is necessary to invoke an inverse viscosity (μ<0). These constraints on permissible power laws apply for any spectrally localized forcing, not just for monoscale-like forcing.

A unified theory of available potential energy

Traditional derivations of available potential energy, in a variety of contexts, involve combining some form of mass conservation together with energy conservation. This raises the questions of why such constructions are required in the first place, and whether there is some general method of deriving the available potential energy for an arbitrary fluid system. By appealing to the underlying Hamiltonian structure of geophysical fluid dynamics, it becomes clear why energy conservation is not enough, and why other conservation laws such as mass conservation need to be incorporated in order to construct an invariant, known as the pseudoenergy, that is a positive‐definite functional of disturbance quantities. The available potential energy is just the non‐kinetic part of the pseudoenergy, the construction of which follows a well defined algorithm. Two notable features of the available potential energy defined thereby are first, that it is a locally defined quantity, and second, that it is inherently definable at finite amplitude (though one may of course always take the small‐amplitude limit if this is appropriate). The general theory is made concrete by systematic derivations of available potential energy in a number of different contexts. All the well known expressions are recovered, and some new expressions are obtained. The possibility of generalizing the concept of available potential energy to dynamically stable basic flows (as opposed to statically stable basic states) is also discussed.

The Impact of office productivity cloud computing on energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions

Cloud computing is usually regarded as being energy efficient and thus emitting less greenhouse gases (GHG) than traditional forms of computing. When the energy consumption of Microsoft’s cloud computing Office 365 (O365) and traditional Office 2010 (O2010) software suites were tested and modeled, some cloud services were found to consume more energy than the traditional form. The developed model in this research took into consideration the energy consumption at the three main stages of data transmission; data center, network, and end user device. Comparable products from each suite were selected and activities were defined for each product to represent a different computing type. Microsoft provided highly confidential data for the data center stage, while the networking and user device stages were measured directly. A new measurement and software apportionment approach was defined and utilized allowing the power consumption of cloud services to be directly measured for the user device stage. Results indicated that cloud computing is more energy efficient for Excel and Outlook which consumed less energy and emitted less GHG than the standalone counterpart. The power consumption of the cloud based Outlook (8%) and Excel (17%) was lower than their traditional counterparts. However, the power consumption of the cloud version of Word was 17% higher than its traditional equivalent. A third mixed access method was also measured for Word which emitted 5% more GHG than the traditional version. It is evident that cloud computing may not provide a unified way forward to reduce energy consumption and GHG. Direct conversion from the standalone package into the cloud provision platform can now consider energy and GHG emissions at the software development and cloud service design stage using the methods described in this research.

Measuring ion temperatures and studying the ion energy balance in the high-latitude ionosphere

Data are presented for a nighttime ion heating event observed by the EISCAT radar on 16 December 1988. In the experiment, the aspect angle between the radar beam and the geomagnetic field was fixed at 54.7°, which avoids any ambiguity in derived ion temperature caused by anisotropy in the ion velocity distribution function. The data were analyzed with an algorithm which takes account of the non-Maxwellian line-of-sight ion velocity distribution. During the heating event, the derived spectral distortion parameter (D∗) indicated that the distribution function was highly distorted from a Maxwellian form when the ion drift increased to 4 km s−1. The true three-dimensional ion temperature was used in the simplified ion balance equation to compute the ion mass during the heating event. The ion composition was found to change from predominantly O4 to mainly molecular ions. A theoretical analysis of the ion composition, using the MSIS86 model and published values of the chemical rate coefficients, accounts for the order-of-magnitude increase in the atomic/molecular ion ratio during the event, but does not successfully explain the very high proportion of molecular ions that was observed.

Energy-efficient resource allocation in OFDM systems with distributed antennas

In this paper, we develop an energy-efficient resource-allocation scheme with proportional fairness for downlink multiuser orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) systems with distributed antennas. Our aim is to maximize energy efficiency (EE) under the constraints of the overall transmit power of each remote access unit (RAU), proportional fairness data rates, and bit error rates (BERs). Because of the nonconvex nature of the optimization problem, obtaining the optimal solution is extremely computationally complex. Therefore, we develop a low-complexity suboptimal algorithm, which separates subcarrier allocation and power allocation. For the low-complexity algorithm, we first allocate subcarriers by assuming equal power distribution. Then, by exploiting the properties of fractional programming, we transform the nonconvex optimization problem in fractional form into an equivalent optimization problem in subtractive form, which includes a tractable solution. Next, an optimal energy-efficient power-allocation algorithm is developed to maximize EE while maintaining proportional fairness. Through computer simulation, we demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed low-complexity algorithm and illustrate the fundamental trade off between energy and spectral-efficient transmission designs.

Analysis and clustering of residential customers energy behavioral demand using smart meter data

Clustering methods are increasingly being applied to residential smart meter data, providing a number of important opportunities for distribution network operators (DNOs) to manage and plan the low voltage networks. Clustering has a number of potential advantages for DNOs including, identifying suitable candidates for demand response and improving energy profile modelling. However, due to the high stochasticity and irregularity of household level demand, detailed analytics are required to define appropriate attributes to cluster. In this paper we present in-depth analysis of customer smart meter data to better understand peak demand and major sources of variability in their behaviour. We find four key time periods in which the data should be analysed and use this to form relevant attributes for our clustering. We present a finite mixture model based clustering where we discover 10 distinct behaviour groups describing customers based on their demand and their variability. Finally, using an existing bootstrapping technique we show that the clustering is reliable. To the authors knowledge this is the first time in the power systems literature that the sample robustness of the clustering has been tested.

Cross layer based protocols for energy aware and critical data delivery related applications using wireless sensor networks

Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) have been an exciting topic in recent years. The services offered by a WSN can be classified into three major categories: monitoring, alerting, and information on demand. WSNs have been used for a variety of applications related to the environment (agriculture, water and forest fire detection), the military, buildings, health (elderly people and home monitoring), disaster relief, and area or industrial monitoring. In most WSNs tasks like processing the sensed data, making decisions and generating emergency messages are carried out by a remote server, hence the need for efficient means of transferring data across the network. Because of the range of applications and types of WSN there is a need for different kinds of MAC and routing protocols in order to guarantee delivery of data from the source nodes to the server (or sink). In order to minimize energy consumption and increase performance in areas such as reliability of data delivery, extensive research has been conducted and documented in the literature on designing energy efficient protocols for each individual layer. The most common way to conserve energy in WSNs involves using the MAC layer to put the transceiver and the processor of the sensor node into a low power, sleep state when they are not being used. Hence the energy wasted due to collisions, overhearing and idle listening is reduced. As a result of this strategy for saving energy, the routing protocols need new solutions that take into account the sleep state of some nodes, and which also enable the lifetime of the entire network to be increased by distributing energy usage between nodes over time. This could mean that a combined MAC and routing protocol could significantly improve WSNs because the interaction between the MAC and network layers lets nodes be active at the same time in order to deal with data transmission. In the research presented in this thesis, a cross-layer protocol based on MAC and routing protocols was designed in order to improve the capability of WSNs for a range of different applications. Simulation results, based on a range of realistic scenarios, show that these new protocols improve WSNs by reducing their energy consumption as well as enabling them to support mobile nodes, where necessary. A number of conference and journal papers have been published to disseminate these results for a range of applications.

An accelerating cosmology without dark energy

The negative pressure accompanying gravitationally-induced particle creation can lead to a cold dark matter (CDM) dominated, accelerating Universe (Lima et al. 1996 [1]) without requiring the presence of dark energy or a cosmological constant. In a recent study, Lima et al. 2008 [2] (LSS) demonstrated that particle creation driven cosmological models are capable of accounting for the SNIa observations [3] of the recent transition from a decelerating to an accelerating Universe, without the need for Dark Energy. Here we consider a class of such models where the particle creation rate is assumed to be of the form Gamma = beta H + gamma H(0), where H is the Hubble parameter and H(0) is its present value. The evolution of such models is tested at low redshift by the latest SNe Ia data provided by the Union compilation [4] and at high redshift using the value of z(eq), the redshift of the epoch of matter - radiation equality, inferred from the WMAP constraints on the early Integrated Sachs-Wolfe (ISW) effect [5]. Since the contributions of baryons and radiation were ignored in the work of LSS, we include them in our study of this class of models. The parameters of these more realistic models with continuous creation of CDM are constrained at widely-separated epochs (z(eq) approximate to 3000 and z approximate to 0) in the evolution of the Universe. The comparison of the parameter values, {beta, gamma}, determined at these different epochs reveals a tension between the values favored by the high redshift CMB constraint on z(eq) from the ISW and those which follow from the low redshift SNIa data, posing a potential challenge to this class of models. While for beta = 0 this conflict is only at less than or similar to 2 sigma, it worsens as beta increases from zero.

On the Casimir energy for a massive quantum scalar field and the cosmological constant

We present a rigorous, regularization-independent local quantum field theoretic treatment of the Casimir effect for a quantum scalar field of mass mu not equal 0 which yields closed form expressions for the energy density and pressure. As an application we show that there exist special states of the quantum field in which the expectation value of the renormalized energy-momentum tensor is, for any fixed time, independent of the space coordinate and of the perfect fluid form g(mu,nu)rho with rho > 0, thus providing a concrete quantum field theoretic model of the cosmological constant. This rho represents the energy density associated to a state consisting of the vacuum and a certain number of excitations of zero momentum, i.e., the constituents correspond to lowest energy and pressure p <= 0. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

On the lower bound on the exchange-correlation energy in two dimensions

We study the properties of the lower bound on the exchange-correlation energy in two dimensions. First we review the derivation of the bound and show how it can be written in a simple density-functional form. This form allows an explicit determination of the prefactor of the bound and testing its tightness. Next we focus on finite two-dimensional systems and examine how their distance from the bound depends on the system geometry. The results for the high-density limit suggest that a finite system that comes as close as possible to the ultimate bound on the exchange-correlation energy has circular geometry and a weak confining potential with a negative curvature. (c) 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

EXACT AND APPROXIMATE RELATIONS FOR THE SPIN-DEPENDENCE OF THE EXCHANGE ENERGY IN HIGH MAGNETIC FIELDS

The exchange energy of an arbitrary collinear-spin many-body system in an external magnetic field is a functional of the spin-resolved charge and current densities, E(x)[n(up arrow), n(down arrow), j(up arrow), j(down arrow)]. Within the framework of density-functional theory (DFT), we show that the dependence of this functional on the four densities can be fully reconstructed from either of two extreme limits: a fully polarized system or a completely unpolarized system. Reconstruction from the limit of an unpolarized system yields a generalization of the Oliver-Perdew spin scaling relations from spin-DFT to current-DFT. Reconstruction from the limit of a fully polarized system is used to derive the high-field form of the local-spin-density approximation to current-DFT and to magnetic-field DFT.

Intrachain Energy Migration to Weak Charge-Transfer State in Polyfluorene End-Capped with Naphthalimide Derivative

Polyfluorene end-capped with N-(2-benzothiazole)-1 8-naphthalimide (PF-BNI) is a highly fluorescent material with fluorescence emission modulated by solvent polarity Its low energy excited state is assigned as a mixed configuration state between the singlet S(1) of the fluorene backbone (F) with the charge transfer (CI) of the end group BNI The triexponential fluorescence decays of PF-BNI were associated with fast energy migration to form an intrachain charge-transfer (ICCT) state polyfluorene backbone decay and ICCT deactivation Time-resolved fluorescence anisotropy exhibited biexponential relaxation with a fast component of 12-16 ps in addition to a slow one in the range 0 8-1 4 ns depending on the solvent showing that depolarization occurs from two different processes energy migration to form the ICCT state and slow rotational diffusion motion of end segments at a longer time Results from femtosecond transient absorption measurements agreed with anisotropy decay and showed a decay component of about 16 ps at 605 nm in PF BNI ascribed to the conversion of S(1) to the ICCT excited state From the ratio of asymptotic and initial amplitudes of the transient absorption measurement the efficiency of intrachain ICCT formation is estimated in 0 5 which means that on average, half of the excited state formed in a BNI-(F)(n)-BNI chain with n = 32 is converted to its low energy intrachain charge-transfer (ICCT) state

Economic growth with foreign saving?

Highly indebted countries, particularly the Latin American ones, presented dismal economic outcomes in the 1990s, which are the consequence of the ‘growth cum foreign savings strategy’, or the Second Washington Consensus. Coupled with liberalization of international financial flows, such strategy, which did not make part of the first consensus, led the countries, in the wave of a new world wide capital flow cycle, to high current account deficits and increase in foreign debt, ignoring the solvency constraint and the debt threshold. In practical terms it involved overvalued currencies (low exchange rates) and high interest rates; in policy terms, the attempt to control de budget deficit while the current account deficit was ignored. The paradoxical consequence was the adoption by highly indebted countries of ‘exchange rate populism’, a less obvious but more dangerous form of economic populism.