The Effects of government spending on the distribution of consumption

We study the effects of government spending on the distribution of consumption. We find a substantial degree of heterogeneity: consumption increases at the bottom and falls at the top of the distribution, implying a significant temporary reduction of consumption inequality. The effects of the shock display correlations of around -0.7/-0.9 with the percentage of stockholders within the decile. We interpret the results as in line and yielding support to models of limited participation where, while the Ricardian equivalence holds for rich households, for poor household, with no access to capital markets, the Keynesian multiplier is at work.

Distribution of artifactual gas on post-mortem multidetector computed tomography (MDCT).

PURPOSE: We investigated the incidence and distribution of post-mortem gas detected with multidetector computed tomography (MDCT) to identify factors that could distinguish artifactual gas from cardiac air embolism. MATERIAL AND METHODS: MDCT data of 119 cadavers were retrospectively examined. Gas was semiquantitatively assessed in selected blood vessels, organs, and body spaces (82 total sites). RESULTS: Seventy-four of the 119 cadavers displayed gas (62.2%; CI 95% 52.8-70.9), and 56 (75.7%) displayed gas in the heart. Most gas was detected in the hepatic parenchyma (40%), right heart (38% ventricle, 35% atrium), inferior vena cava (30% infrarenally, 26% suprarenally), hepatic veins (26% left, 29% middle, 22% right), and portal spaces (29%). Male cadavers displayed gas more frequently than female cadavers. Gas was detected 5-84 hours after death; therefore, the post-mortem interval could not reliably predict gas distribution (rho = 0.719, p < 0.0001). We found that a large amount of putrefaction-generated gas in the right heart was associated with aggregated gas bubbles in the hepatic parenchyma (sensitivity = 100%, specificity = 89.7%). In contrast, gas in the left heart (sensitivity = 41.7%, specificity = 100%) or in periumbilical subcutaneous tissues (sensitivity = 50%, specificity = 96.3%) could not predict gas due to putrefaction. CONCLUSION: This study is the first to show that the appearance of post-mortem gas follows a specific distribution pattern. An association between intracardiac gas and hepatic parenchymal gas could distinguish between post-mortem-generated gas and vital air embolism. We propose that this finding provides a key for diagnosing death due to cardiac air embolism.

Quantifying rock fabrics: a test of autocorrelation of the spatial distribution of cristals

A novel test of spatial independence of the distribution of crystals or phases in rocksbased on compositional statistics is introduced. It improves and generalizes the commonjoins-count statistics known from map analysis in geographic information systems.Assigning phases independently to objects in RD is modelled by a single-trial multinomialrandom function Z(x), where the probabilities of phases add to one and areexplicitly modelled as compositions in the K-part simplex SK. Thus, apparent inconsistenciesof the tests based on the conventional joins{count statistics and their possiblycontradictory interpretations are avoided. In practical applications we assume that theprobabilities of phases do not depend on the location but are identical everywhere inthe domain of de nition. Thus, the model involves the sum of r independent identicalmultinomial distributed 1-trial random variables which is an r-trial multinomialdistributed random variable. The probabilities of the distribution of the r counts canbe considered as a composition in the Q-part simplex SQ. They span the so calledHardy-Weinberg manifold H that is proved to be a K-1-affine subspace of SQ. This isa generalisation of the well-known Hardy-Weinberg law of genetics. If the assignmentof phases accounts for some kind of spatial dependence, then the r-trial probabilitiesdo not remain on H. This suggests the use of the Aitchison distance between observedprobabilities to H to test dependence. Moreover, when there is a spatial uctuation ofthe multinomial probabilities, the observed r-trial probabilities move on H. This shiftcan be used as to check for these uctuations. A practical procedure and an algorithmto perform the test have been developed. Some cases applied to simulated and realdata are presented.Key words: Spatial distribution of crystals in rocks, spatial distribution of phases,joins-count statistics, multinomial distribution, Hardy-Weinberg law, Hardy-Weinbergmanifold, Aitchison geometry

Differential distribution of tau proteins in developing cat cerebral cortex and corpus callosum.

During the postnatal development of cat visual cortex and corpus callosum the molecular composition of tau proteins varied with age. In both structures, they changed between postnatal days 19 and 39 from a set of two juvenile forms to a set of at least two adult variants with higher molecular weights. During the first postnatal week, tau proteins were detectable with TAU-1 antibody in axons of corpus callosum and visual cortex, and in some perikarya and dendrites in the visual cortex. At later ages, tau proteins were located exclusively within axons in all cortical layers and in the corpus callosum. Dephosphorylation of postnatal day 11 cortical tissue by alkaline phosphatase strongly increased tau protein immunoreactivity on Western blots and in numerous perikarya and dendrites in all cortical layers, in sections, suggesting that some tau forms had been unmasked. During postnatal development the intensity of this phosphate-dependent somatodendritic staining decreased, but remained in a few neurons in cortical layers II and III. On blots, the immunoreactivity of adult tau to TAU-1 was only marginally increased by dephosphorylation. Other tau antibodies (TAU-2, B19 and BR133) recognized two juvenile and two adult cat tau proteins on blots, and localized tau in axons or perikarya and dendrites in tissue untreated with alkaline phosphatase. Tau proteins in mature tissue were soluble and not associated with detergent-resistant structures. Furthermore, dephosphorylation by alkaline phosphatase resulted in the appearance of more tau proteins in soluble fractions. Therefore tau proteins seem to alter their degree of phosphorylation during development. This could affect microtubule stability as well as influence axonal and dendritic differentiation.

Disease in the dark: molecular characterization of Polychromophilus murinus in temperate zone bats revealed a worldwide distribution of this malaria-like disease.

For a better understanding of the complex coevolutionary processes between hosts and parasites, accurate identification of the actors involved in the interaction is of fundamental importance. Blood parasites of the Order Haemosporidia, responsible for malaria, have become the focus of a broad range of studies in evolutionary biology. Interestingly, molecular-based studies on avian malaria have revealed much higher species diversity than previously inferred with morphology. Meanwhile, studies on bat haemosporidian have been largely neglected. In Europe, only one genus (Polychromophilus) and two species have been morphologically described. To evaluate the presence of potential cryptic species and parasite prevalence, we undertook a molecular characterization of Polychromophilus in temperate zone bats. We used a nested-PCR approach on the cytochrome b mitochondrial gene to detect the presence of parasites in 237 bats belonging to four different species and in the dipteran bat fly Nycteribia kolenatii, previously described as being the vector of Polychromophilus. Polychromophilus murinus was found in the four bat species and in the insect vector with prevalence ranging from 4% for Myotis myotis to 51% for M. daubentoni. By sequencing 682 bp, we then investigated the phylogenetic relationships of Polychromophilus to other published malarial lineages. Seven haplotypes were found, all very closely related, suggesting the presence of a single species in our samples. These haplotypes formed a well-defined clade together with Haemosporidia of tropical bats, revealing a worldwide distribution of this parasite mostly neglected by malarial studies since the 1980s.

Selective distribution of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes in neurons and astrocytes of human brain.

In vertebrates, the interconversion of lactate and pyruvate is catalyzed by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase. Two distinct subunits combine to form the five tetrameric isoenzymes of lactate dehydrogenase. The LDH-5 subunit (muscle type) has higher maximal velocity (Vmax) and is present in glycolytic tissues, favoring the formation of lactate from pyruvate. The LDH-1 subunit (heart type) is inhibited by pyruvate and therefore preferentially drives the reaction toward the production of pyruvate. There is mounting evidence indicating that during activation the brain resorts to the transient glycolytic processing of glucose. Indeed, transient lactate formation during physiological stimulation has been shown by 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. However, since whole-brain arteriovenous studies under basal conditions indicate a virtually complete oxidation of glucose, the vast proportion of the lactate transiently formed during activation is likely to be oxidized. These in vivo data suggest that lactate may be formed in certain cells and oxidized in others. We therefore set out to determine whether the two isoforms of lactate dehydrogenase are localized to selective cell types in the human brain. We report here the production and characterization of two rat antisera, specific for the LDH-5 and LDH-1 subunits of lactate dehydrogenase, respectively. Immunohistochemical, immunodot, and western-blot analyses show that these antisera specifically recognize their homologous antigens. Immunohistochemistry on 10 control cases demonstrated a differential cellular distribution between both subunits in the hippocampus and occipital cortex: neurons are exclusively stained with the anti-LDH1 subunit while astrocytes are stained by both antibodies. These observations support the notion of a regulated lactate flux between astrocytes and neurons.

Distribution of free and conjugated cannabinoids in human bile samples.

The metabolism of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is relatively complex, and over 80 metabolites have been identified. However, much less is known about the formation and fate of cannabinoid conjugates. Bile excretion is known to be an important route for the elimination of phase II metabolites. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry LC-MS/MS procedure for measuring cannabinoids in oral fluid was adapted, validated and applied to 10 bile samples. THC, 11-hydroxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (11-OH-THC), 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH), cannabinol (CBN), cannabidiol (CBD), Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (THC-A), 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide (THCCOOH-gluc) and Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide (THC-gluc) were determined following solid-phase extraction and LC-MS/MS. High concentrations of THCCOOH-gluc were found in bile samples (range: 139-21,275 ng/mL). Relatively high levels of THCCOOH (7.7-1548 ng/mL) and THC-gluc (38-1366 ng/mL) were also measured. THC-A, the plant precursor of THC, was the only cannabinoid that was not detected. These results show that biliary excretion is an important route of elimination for cannabinoids conjugates and that their enterohepatic recirculation is a significant factor to consider when analyzing blood elimination profiles of cannabinoids. Furthermore, we suggest that the bile is the matrix of choice for the screening of phase II cannabinoid metabolites.

A stratified approach for modeling the distribution of a threatened ant species in the Swiss National Park

We present models predicting the potential distribution of a threatened ant species, Formica exsecta Nyl., in the Swiss National Park ( SNP). Data to fit the models have been collected according to a random-stratified design with an equal number of replicates per stratum. The basic aim of such a sampling strategy is to allow the formal testing of biological hypotheses about those factors most likely to account for the distribution of the modeled species. The stratifying factors used in this study were: vegetation, slope angle and slope aspect, the latter two being used as surrogates of solar radiation, considered one of the basic requirements of F. exsecta. Results show that, although the basic stratifying predictors account for more than 50% of the deviance, the incorporation of additional non-spatially explicit predictors into the model, as measured in the field, allows for an increased model performance (up to nearly 75%). However, this was not corroborated by permutation tests. Implementation on a national scale was made for one model only, due to the difficulty of obtaining similar predictors on this scale. The resulting map on the national scale suggests that the species might once have had a broader distribution in Switzerland. Reasons for its particular abundance within the SNP might possibly be related to habitat fragmentation and vegetation transformation outside the SNP boundaries.

Differential distribution of MAP1a and aldolase c in adult mouse cerebellum.

MAP1a is a microtubule-associated protein with an apparent molecular weight of 360 kDa that is found in the axonal and dendritic processes of neurons. Two monoclonal anti-MAP1a antibodies anti-A and anti-BW6, revealed different epitope distributions in the adult mouse cerebellum. Anti-A stained Purkinje and granule cells uniformly throughout the cerebellum. In contrast, anti-BW6 selectively stained the dendriites of a subset of Purkinje cells, revealing parasagittal bands of immunoreactivity in the molecular layer. The compartmentation of the BW6 epitope was compared to the Purkine cells as revealed by immunostaining with anti-zebrin II, a well known antigen expressed selectively by bands of Purkinje cells. The anti-BW6 staining pattern was complementary to the zebrin II bands, the zebrin II- Purkinjke cells having BW6+ dendrites. These results demonstrate that MAP1a is present in two forms in the mouse cerebellum, one of which is segregated into parasagittal bands. This may indicate a unique MAP1a isoform or may reflect differences in the metabolic states of Purkinje cell classes, and regional differences in their functions.

Airline Consolidation and the Distribution of Traffic between Primary and Secondary Hubs

Several airline consolidation events have recently been completed both in Europe and in the United States. The model we develop considers two airlines operating hub-and-spoke networks, using different hubs to connect the same spoke airports. We assume the airlines to be vertically differentiated, which allows us to distinguish between primary and secondary hubs. We conclude that this differentiation in air services becomes more accentuated after consolidation, with an increased number of flights being channeled through the primary hub. However, congestion can act as a brake on the concentration of flight frequency in the primary hub following consolidation. Our empirical application involves an analysis of Delta s network following its merger with Northwest. We find evidence consistent with an increase in the importance of Delta s primary hubs at the expense of its secondary airports. We also find some evidence suggesting that the carrier chooses to divert traffic away from those hub airports that were more prone to delays prior to the merger, in particular New York s JFK airport. Keywords: primary hub; secondary hub; airport congestion; airline consolidation; airline networks JEL Classi fication Numbers: D43; L13; L40; L93; R4

Establishment of animal models to analyze the kinetics and distribution of human tumor antigen-specific CD8⁺ T cells.

Many patients develop tumor antigen-specific T cell responses detectable in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) following cancer vaccine. However, measurable tumor regression is observed in a limited number of patients receiving cancer vaccines. There is a need to re-evaluate systemically the immune responses induced by cancer vaccines. Here, we established animal models targeting two human cancer/testis antigens, NY-ESO-1 and MAGE-A4. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes of these antigens were investigated by immunizing BALB/c mice with plasmids encoding the entire sequences of NY-ESO-1 or MAGE-A4. CD8(+) T cells specific for NY-ESO-1 or MAGE-A4 were able to be detected by ELISPOT assays using antigen presenting cells pulsed with overlapping peptides covering the whole protein, indicating the high immunogenicity of these antigens in mice. Truncation of these peptides revealed that NY-ESO-1-specific CD8(+) T cells recognized D(d)-restricted 8mer peptides, NY-ESO-181-88. MAGE-A4-specific CD8(+) T cells recognized D(d)-restricted 9mer peptides, MAGE-A4265-273. MHC/peptide tetramers allowed us to analyze the kinetics and distribution of the antigen-specific immune responses, and we found that stronger antigen-specific CD8(+) T cell responses were required for more effective anti-tumor activity. Taken together, these animal models are valuable for evaluation of immune responses and optimization of the efficacy of cancer vaccines.

Distribution of events of positive selection and population differentiation in a metabolic pathway: the case of asparagine N-glycosylation

Background: Asparagine N-Glycosylation is one of the most important forms of protein post-translational modification in eukaryotes. This metabolic pathway can be subdivided into two parts: an upstream sub-pathway required for achieving proper folding for most of the proteins synthesized in the secretory pathway, and a downstream sub-pathway required to give variability to trans-membrane proteins, and involved in adaptation to the environment andinnate immunity. Here we analyze the nucleotide variability of the genes of this pathway in human populations, identifying which genes show greater population differentiation and which genes show signatures of recent positive selection. We also compare how these signals are distributed between the upstream and the downstream parts of the pathway, with the aim of exploring how forces of population differentiation and positive selection vary among genes involved in the same metabolic pathway but subject to different functional constraints. Results:Our results show that genes in the downstream part of the pathway are more likely to show a signature of population differentiation, while events of positive selection are equally distributed among the two parts of the pathway. Moreover, events of positive selection arefrequent on genes that are known to be at bifurcation points, and that are identified as beingin key position by a network-level analysis such as MGAT3 and GCS1.Conclusions: These findings indicate that the upstream part of the Asparagine N-Glycosylation pathway has lower diversity among populations, while the downstream part is freer to tolerate diversity among populations. Moreover, the distribution of signatures of population differentiation and positive selection can change between parts of a pathway, especially between parts that are exposed to different functional constraints. Our results support the hypothesis that genes involved in constitutive processes can be expected to show lower population differentiation, while genes involved in traits related to the environment should show higher variability. Taken together, this work broadens our knowledge on how events of population differentiation and of positive selection are distributed among different parts of a metabolic pathway.

Postmortem distribution of 3-beta-hydroxybutyrate.

The concentrations of 3-beta-hydroxybutyrate (3HB) in femoral blood, urine, vitreous humor as well as pericardial and cerebrospinal fluids were retrospectively examined in a series of medico-legal autopsies, which included cases of diabetic ketoacidosis, hypothermia fatalities without ethanol in blood, bodies presenting mild decompositional changes, and sudden deaths in chronic alcoholics. Similar increases in 3HB concentrations were observed in blood, vitreous, and pericardial fluid, irrespective of the cause of death, suggesting that pericardial fluid and vitreous can both be used as alternatives to blood for postmortem 3HB determination. Urine 3HB levels were higher than blood values in most cases. Cerebrospinal fluid 3HB levels were generally lower than concentrations in blood and proved to be diagnostic of underlying metabolic disturbances only when significant increases occurred.

Government and the distribution of skills

Individuals' life chances in the future will very much depend on how we invest in our children now. An optimal human capital model would combine a high mean with minimal variance of skills. It is well-established that early childhood learning is key to adult success. The impact of social origins on child outcomes remains strong, and the new role of women poses additional challenges to our conventional nurturing approach to child development. This paper focuses on skill development in the early years, examining how we might best combine family inputs and public policy to invest optimally in our future human capital. I emphasize three issues: one, the uneven capacity of parents to invest in children; two, the impact of mothers' employment on child outcomes; and three, the potential benefits of early pre-school programmes. I conclude that mothers' intra-family bargaining power is decisive for family investments and that universal child care is key if our goal is to arrive at a strong mean with minimal variance.

Quantitative distribution of parvalbumin, calretinin, and calbindin D-28k immunoreactive neurons in the visual cortex of normal and Alzheimer cases.

The distribution of parvalbumin (PV), calretinin (CR), and calbindin (CB) immunoreactive neurons was studied with the help of an image analysis system (Vidas/Zeiss) in the primary visual area 17 and associative area 18 (Brodmann) of Alzheimer and control brains. In neither of these areas was there a significant difference between Alzheimer and control groups in the mean number of PV, CR, or CB immunoreactive neuronal profiles, counted in a cortical column going from pia to white matter. Significant differences in the mean densities (numbers per square millimeter of cortex) of PV, CR, and CB immunoreactive neuronal profiles were not observed either between groups or areas, but only between superficial, middle, and deep layers within areas 17 and 18. The optical density of the immunoreactive neuropil was also similar in Alzheimer and controls, correlating with the numerical density of immunoreactive profiles in superficial, middle, and deep layers. The frequency distribution of neuronal areas indicated significant differences between PV, CR, and CB immunoreactive neuronal profiles in both areas 17 and 18, with more large PV than CR and CB positive profiles. There were also significantly more small and less large PV and CR immunoreactive neuronal profiles in Alzheimer than in controls. Our data show that, although the brain pathology is moderate to severe, there is no prominent decrease of PV, CR and CB positive neurons in the visual cortex of Alzheimer brains, but only selective changes in neuronal perikarya.