Mechanismus der Apoptose, Gentoxizität und DNA-Reparatur in Herpesvirus-Thymidinkinase-exprimierenden Säugerzellen nach Behandlung mit Antiherpes-Virustatika vom Typ der Nukleosidanaloga

Um Cytotoxizität und Gentoxizität nukleosidischer Antiherpes-Virustatika zu untersuchen, wurden stabile CHO-Klone etabliert, die Thymidinkinase (TK) des Herpes simplex-Virus Typ 1 (HSV-TK) oder des Varicella zoster-Virus (VZV-TK) exprimieren. In HSV-TK-exprimierenden Zellen wurde das Purinanalogon Ganciclovir (GCV) effizient in die genomische DNA eingebaut, worauf in den nächsten Replikationsrunden DNA-Strangbrüche und Aberrationen entstehen und Apoptose ausgelöst wird. GCV-induzierte Apoptose wird hauptsächlich über den mitochondrialen Weg vermittelt, wobei das anti-apoptotische Protein Bcl-2 im Mittelpunkt steht. Nach GCV-Behandlung konnte eine Caspase-9-vermittelte post-translationale Spaltung von Bcl-2 nachgewiesen werden. Das 23 kDa-großes Bcl-2-Fragment wirkt im Gegensatz zum intakten Bcl-2-Protein pro-apoptotisch und verstärkt die Cytochrom C-Freisetzung und damit die Aktivierung der Caspase-9, die Bcl-2 spaltet, was zu einem positiven 'Amplifikationsloop' des mitochondrialen apoptotischen Weges führt. In weiteren Experimenten wurde gezeigt, daß in die DNA inkorporiertes GCV durch Basenexzisionsreparatur repariert wird, wobei die DNA-Polymerase ß eine entscheidende Rolle spielt. Diese Reparatur führte zu einer signifikanten Reduktion der Apoptose und Klastogenität und damit zur Resistenzsteigerung gegenüber GCV. In VZV-TK-exprimierenden Zellen wurde gezeigt, daß Brivudin (BVDU), gleichermaßen Apoptose und Nekrose induzierte. Für die BVDU-induzierte Cytotoxizität konnte die Hemmung der Thymidylatsynthetase als Ursache identifiziert werden. Im Gegensatz zur GCV-induzierten Apoptose war für die BVDU-induzierte Apoptose der Rezeptor (Fas/CD95/APO-1)-vermittelte Weg von vorrangiger Bedeutung.

Molekularzytogenetische Untersuchungen an Nierenzelltumoren des Menschen

Nierenkarzinome (NZK) des Erwachsenenalters weisen nebenhistologisch-zytologischen Merkmalen typische genetischeCharakteristika auf, die mit dem biologischen Verhalten derTumorzellen korrelieren. Der Nachweis genomischerVeränderungen wird zur Diagnostik und Prognoseeinschätzungvon Tumoren herangezogen. Für die untersuchtenNierentumorerkrankungen wurden lediglich das vonHippel-Lindau Tumorsuppressorgen (VHL) auf Chromosom 3 oderdas MET Proto-Onkogen auf Chromosom 7 als gesichertepathogenetische Faktoren in der Entstehung von NZKidentifiziert. Die vorliegende Arbeit leistet einen Beitragzur molekularen Charakterisierung derNierentumor-Pathogenese. Die gewählten Ansätze umfassen: (A)Die Analyse 91 primärer Nierentumoren mit CGH (comparativegenomic hybridization), (B) die Untersuchung chromosomalerBruchpunkte eines komplex rearrangierten, familiärenNZK-Falles und (C) die Charakterisierung umschriebenerGenomveränderungen im Bereich des VHL-Lokus auf Chromosom 3p25 .(A) Chromosomen-Aberrationen wurden identifiziert undeingegrenzt. Das Auftreten spezifischer chromosomalerAberrationen konnte mit dem dokumentierten Krankheitsverlaufassoziiert werden. Die als progressionsassoziiert oderprognoserelevant identifizierten Chromosomen(bereiche)5(q22-qter), 4, 10, 14q, 17, 6, 8, 9, 12 können alsAusgangspunkte für eine Suche nach subtypspezifischen,relevanten Tumorgenen dienen. (B) Chromosomenanalysen einerFamilie mit Veranlagung für das klarzellige NZK belegteneine Translokation zwischen den Chromosomen 3 und 8 imperipheren Patientenblut. Weitere molekularzytogenetischeUntersuchungen deckten ein komplexes chromosomalesRearrangement t(3;8)(q13.1;p21.1) auf. (C) DieFeinkartierung der Region um den VHL-Genlokus istinsbesondere bei Tumoren ohne molekulargenetischnachzuweisenden VHL-Verlust erforderlich. Zur Identifikationweiterer in dieser Region kartierender, evtl. ko-deletierterTumorsuppressor-Kandidatengene, wurden genomische(PAC)-Sonden isoliert, charakterisiert und zurDeletionskartierung eingesetzt.

Genomisches Imprinting Beckwith-Wiedemann-Syndrom assoziierter Gene

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde das Imprinting von Genen der Chromosomenregion 11p15.5 des Menschen und des orthologen murinen Abschnitts 7F5 untersucht. Bei der Analyse der humanen Gene H19, IGF2 und KCNQ1OT1 stand deren Regulation durch differentiell methylierte Regionen (DMR) und die Identifizierung von Methylierungsfehlern bei Patienten mit Verdacht auf Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrom (BWS) im Vordergrund. Hierzu wurden unmethylierte Cytosinnukleotide durch Bisulfitbehandlung in Uracilnukleotide umgewandelt und PCR-amplifizierte DNA-Fragmente sequenziert. Die elterliche Herkunft der Allele wurde mit Hilfe von Einzelnukleotidpolymorphismen (SNP) bestimmt. Während in der H19-Promotorregion in Lymphozyten eine nur tendenziell allelspezifische Methylierung festgestellt werden konnte, wurde im B1-Repeat der H19/IGF2-Region in allen Kontroll- und 20 Patienten-DNAs eine spezifische Methylierung des väterlichen Allels nachgewiesen. Vier BWS-DNAs zeigten hingegen eine nahezu vollständige Hypomethylierung. In der zwe

Analisi molecolare dei linfomi cutanei aggressivi

I linfomi primitivi cutanei riconosciuti nella classificazione della WHO/EORTC si presentano come “entità cliniche distinte” su base clinica, morfologica, immunofenotipica e molecolare. Il fenotipo linfocitario T helper CD4+ caratterizza i CTCL, ma alcune entità a prognosi aggressiva presentano un immunofenotipo citotossico CD8+. Numerosi studi di citogenetica (CGH) e gene-expression profiling (GEP) sono stati condotti negli ultimi anni sui CTCL e sono state riscontrate numerose aberrazioni cromosomiche correlate ai meccanismi di controllo del ciclo cellulare. Scopo del nostro studio è la valutazione delle alterazioni genomiche coinvolte nella tumorigenesi di alcuni CTCL aggressivi: il linfoma extranodale NK/T nasal-type, il linfoma primitivo cutaneo aggressivo epidermotropo (AECTCL) e il gruppo dei PTCL/NOS pleomorfo CD8+. Il materiale bioptico dei pazienti è stato sottoposto alla metodica dell’array-CGH per identificare le anomalie cromosomiche; in alcuni casi di AECTCL è stata applicata la GEP, che evidenzia il profilo di espressione genica delle cellule neoplastiche. I dati ottenuti sono stati valutati in modo statistico, evidenziando le alterazioni cromosomiche comuni significative di ogni entità. In CGH, sono state evidenziate alcune aberrazioni comuni fra le entità studiate, la delezione di 9p21.3, l’amplificazione di 17q, 19p13, 19q13.11-q13.32 , 12q13 e 16p13.3, che determinano la delezione dei geni CDKN2A e CDKN2B e l’attivazione del JAK/STAT signaling pathway. Altre alterazioni definiscono l’amplificazione di c-MYC (8q24) e CCND1/CDK4-6 (11q13). In particolare, sono state evidenziate numerose anomalie genomiche comuni in casi di AECTCL e PTCL/NOS pleomorfo. L’applicazione della GEP in 5 casi di AECTCL ha confermato l’alterata espressione dei geni CDKN2A, JAK3 e STAT6, che potrebbero avere un ruolo diretto nella linfomagenesi. Lo studio di un numero maggiore di casi in GEP e l’introduzione delle nuove indagini molecolari come l’analisi dei miRNA, della whole-exome e whole genome sequences consentiranno di evidenziare alterazioni molecolari correlate con la prognosi, definendo anche nuovi target terapeutici.

Analisi molecolare delle fasi evolutive della micosi fungoide

Lo scopo del progetto triennale del dottorato di ricerca è lo studio delle alterazioni genetiche in un gruppo di pazienti affetti da micosi fungoide ed un gruppo di pazienti affetti da sindrome di Sezary. Dalle biopsie cutanee è stato estratto il DNA e analizzato, comparandolo con DNA sano di riferimento, utilizzando la tecnica array-CGH, allo scopo di identificare la presenza di geni potenzialmente implicati nel processo di oncogenesi. Questa analisi è stata eseguita, per ogni paziente, su biopsie effettuate ad una fase iniziale di malattia e ad una fase di progressione della stessa. Sugli stessi pazienti è stata inoltre eseguita un’analisi miRNA. Si ipotizza che il profilo d’espressione dei miRNA possa infatti dare informazioni utili per predire lo stato di malattia, il decorso clinico, la progressione tumorale e la riposta terapeutica. Questo lavoro è stato poi eseguito su biopsie effettuate in pazienti affetti da sindrome di Sezary che, quando non insorge primitivamente come tale, si può considerare una fase evolutiva della micosi fungoide. La valutazione delle alterazioni genetiche, ed in particolare la correlazione esistente tra duplicazione e delezione genetica e sovra/sottoespressione genetica, è stata possibile attraverso l’interpretazione e la comparazione dei dati ottenuti attraverso le tecniche array-CGH e miRNA. Sono stati comparati i risultati ottenuti per valutare quali fossero le alterazioni cromosomiche riscontrate nei diversi stadi di malattia. L’applicazione dell’array-CGH e della metodica di analisi mi-RNA si sono rivelate molto utili per l’identificazione delle diverse aberrazioni cromosomiche presenti nel genoma dei pazienti affetti da micosi fungoide e sindrome di Sezary, per valutare la prognosi del paziente e per cercare di migliorare o trovare nuove linee terapeutiche per il trattamento delle due patologie. Lo studio di questi profili può rappresentare quindi uno strumento di grande importanza nella classificazione e nella diagnosi dei tumori.

Caratterizzazione Citogenetico-Molecolare delle alterazioni cromosomiche 3q26 e 1p36 nelle Sindromi Mieloproliferative

L’overespressione dei geni EVI1(3q26) e PRDM16(1p36), è descritta sia in presenza che in assenza di riarrangiamenti 3q26 e 1p36 in specifici sottogruppi citogenetici di LAM, ed è associata ad una prognosi sfavorevole. Lo scopo principale del nostro studio è stato identificare e caratterizzare tramite FISH e RQ-PCR, alterazioni di EVI1 e PRDM16 in pazienti con alterazioni cromosomiche 3q e 1p.Riarrangiamenti di EVI1 si associavano ad alterazioni cromosomiche 3q26, ma, in 6 casi (6/35;17,1%) erano presenti in assenza di coinvolgimenti, in citogenetica convenzionale, della regione 3q26, a causa di meccanismi complessi e/o alterazioni ‘criptiche’. Inoltre, abbiamo identificato quattro nuovi riarrangiamenti di EVI1, tra cui due nuove traslocazioni simili presenti in due fratelli. Riarrangiamenti e/o amplificazioni di PRDM16 erano spesso associate ad alterazioni 1p36 (7/14;50%). L’analisi di EVI1 e PRDM16 è stata estesa ad altri casi con alterazioni -7/7q-, con cariotipo normale, con alterazioni 3q per PRDM16 e con alterazioni 1p per EVI1. L’overespressione di EVI1 era presente solo nel gruppo -7/7q- (10/58;17.2%) ed in un caso si associava ad amplificazione genica, mentre PRDM16 era overespresso in casi di tutti i gruppi analizzati,sia con cariotipi complessi, dove si associava in alcuni casi ad amplificazione genica, sia con cariotipi normali o con singole alterazioni. Il nostro studio dimostra come la FISH permetta di identificare alterazioni dei geni EVI1 e PRDM16, anche in assenza di coinvolgimenti delle regioni 3q26 e 1p36. Riarrangiamenti complessi e/o una scarsa qualità dei preparati citogenetici sono le cause principali per la mancata identificazione di queste alterazioni. La RQ-PCR permette di identificare l’overespressione anche nei casi in cui non sia dovuta ad alterazioni citogenetiche. È importante confermare con FISH e/o RQ-PCR il coinvolgimento di questi due geni, per individuare alla diagnosi pazienti con prognosi sfavorevole e che potranno beneficiare di terapie maggiormente aggressive e/o di trapianto allogenico di cellule staminali.

In vivo consequences of AML1-ETO fusion protein expression for hematopoiesis

The t(8;21) (q22;q22) translocation fusing the ETO (also known as MTG8) gene on human chromosome 8 with the AML1 (also called Runx1 or CBFα) gene on chromosome 21 is one of the most common genetic aberrations found in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). This chromosomal translocation occurs in 12 % of de novo AML cases and in up to 40 % of the AML-M2 subtype of the French-American-British classification. To date, the in vivo function of aberrant AML1-ETO fusion protein expression has been investigated by several groups. However, in these studies, controversial results were reported and some key issues remain unknown. Importantly, the consequences of aberrant AML1-ETO expression for self-renewing hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), multipotent hematopoietic progenitors (MPPs) and lineage-restricted precursors are not known. rn The aim of this thesis was to develop a novel experimental AML1-ETO in vivo model that (i) overcomes the current lack of insight into the pre-leukemic condition of t(8;21)-associated AML, (ii) clarifies the in vivo consequences of AML1-ETO for HSCs, MPPs, progenitors and more mature blood cells and (iii) generates an improved mouse model suitable for mirroring the human condition. For this purpose, a conditional tet on/off mouse model expressing the AML1-ETO fusion protein from the ROSA26 (R26) locus was generated. rn Aberrant AML1-ETO activation in compound ROSA26/tetOAML1-ETO (R26/AE) mice caused high rates of mortality, an overall disruption of hematopoietic organs and a profound alteration of hematopoiesis. However, since the generalized activity of the R26 locus did not recapitulate the leukemic condition found in human patients, it was important to restrict AML1-ETO expression to blood cell lineages. Therefore, bone marrow cells from non-induced R26/AE mice were adoptively transplanted into sublethal irradiated RAG2-/- recipient mice. First signs of phenotypical differences between AML1-ETO-expressing and control mice were observed after eight to nine months of transgene induction. AML1-ETO-expressing mice showed profound changes in hematopoietic organs accompanied by manifest extramedullary hematopoiesis. In addition, a block in early erythropoiesis, B- and T-cell maturation was observed and granulopoiesis was significantly enhanced. Most interestingly, conditional activation of AML1-ETO in chimeric mice did not increase HSCs, MPPs, common lymphoid precursors (CLPs), common myeloid progenitors (CMPs) and megakaryocyte-erythrocyte progenitors (MEPs) but promoted the selective amplification of granulocyte-macrophage progenitors (GMPs). rn The results of this thesis provide clear experimental evidence how aberrant AML1-ETO modulates the developmental properties of normal hematopoiesis and establishes for the first time that AML1-ETO does not increase HSCs, MPPs and common lineage-restricted progenitor pools but specifically amplifies GMPs. The here presented mouse model not only clarifies the role of aberrant AML1-ETO for shaping hematopoietic development but in addition has strong implications for future therapeutic strategies and will be an excellent pre-clinical tool for developing and testing new approaches to treat and eventually cure AML.rn

The search for Multiple Myeloma Stem cells: molecular characterization and self-renewal mechanisms involved in the disease persistence

The existence of Multiple Myeloma Stem cells (MMSCs)is supposed to be one of the major causes of MM drug-resistance. However, very little is known about the molecular characteristics of MMSCs, even if some studies suggested that these cells resembles the memory B cells. In order to molecularly characterize MMSCs, we isolated the 138+138- population. For each cell fraction we performed a VDJ rearrangement analysis. The complete set of aberrations were performed by SNP Array 6.0 and HG-U133 Plus 2.0 microarray analyses (Affymetrix). The VDJ rearrangement analyses confirmed the clonal relationship between the 138+ clone and the immature clone. Both BM and PBL 138+ clones showed exactly the same genomic macroalterations. In the BM and PBL 138-19+27+ cell fractions several micro-alterations (range: 1-350 Kb) unique of the memory B cells clone were highlighted. Any micro-alterations detected were located out of any genomic variants region and are presumably associated to the MM pathogenesis, as confirmed by the presence of KRAS, WWOX and XIAP genes among the amplified regions. To get insight into the biology of the clonotypic B cell population, we compared the gene expression profile of 8 MM B cells samples 5 donor B cells vs, thus showing a differential expression of 11480 probes (p-value: <0,05). Among the self-renewal mechanisms, we observed the down-regulation of Hedgehog pathway and the iperactivation of Notch and Wnt signaling. Moreover, these immature cells showed a particular phenotype correlated to resistance to proteasome inhibitors (IRE1α-XBP1: -18.0; -19.96. P<0,05). Data suggested that the MM 138+ clone might resume the end of the complex process of myelomagenesis, whereas the memory B cells have some intriguing micro-alterations and a specific transcriptional program, supporting the idea that these post germinal center cells might be involved in the transforming event that originate and sustain the neoplastic clone.

Molekularbiologische Charakterisierung und funktionelle Analyse des in Kopf-Hals-Tumoren überexprimierten Proteins OSF-2

Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde das in Kopf-Hals-Tumoren überexprimierte, hinsichtlich seiner Funktion jedoch kontrovers diskutierte Protein OSF-2 (Osteoblast specific factor-2) molekularbiologisch charakterisiert und funktionell analysiert. Die endogene OSF-2-Expression wurde in verschiedenen Zelllinien, Geweben, sowie in Primärzellen untersucht. Die durch das N-terminale Sekretionssignal verursachte Proteinsekretion konnte sowohl morphologisch als auch biochemisch nachgewiesen werden. In Microarray-Experimenten konnte gezeigt werden, dass sowohl Tumorzellen als auch Tumor- assoziierte Fibroblasten OSF-2 exprimieren, wobei allerdings keine OSF-2-Isoformsignatur nachgewiesen werden konnte. In funktionellen Assays zeigte OSF-2 zwar keinen Einfluß auf die Proliferation von Kopf-Hals-Tumorzellen, stellte sich jedoch als wichtig für die Zellmigration und das Überleben der Zellen unter ungünstigen Wachstumsbedingungen heraus. Diese Ergebnisse konnten anhand von in vivo-Untersuchungen bestätigt werden. Das verbesserte Überleben der Zellen lässt sich wahrscheinlich durch die OSF-2-induzierte Aktivierung des “Survival Pathways“ Akt/PKB über die PI3-Kinase erklären. Bei den im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen humanen Tumorgewebes war es möglich eine neue Tumorzelllinie des frontalen Sinus zu etablieren und charakterisieren. Hierbei konnte gezeigt werden, dass es sich um HPV-negative, morphologisch äußerst heterogene Zellen mit geringer Migrationsgeschwindigkeit handelt, die eine große Zahl an Chromosomenaberrationen aufweisen. Sie konnten ungünstige Wachstumsbedingungen wie Nährstoffmangel besser überleben als die im Vergleich untersuchte Kopf-Hals-Tumorzelllinie und waren dazu in der Lage nach subkutaner Injektion Tumorwachstum in immundefizienten Nacktmäusen zu initiieren. Aus der Tumorzellpopulation isolierte CD133+ Zellen erhöhten die Tumorinitiation erheblich, was auf das Vorhandensein von Tumorstammzellen innerhalb der CD133+ Zellfraktion hindeutet. Um die Bedeutung von OSF-2 als Zielstruktur für neue Krebsmedikamente einschätzen zu können, sind allerdings weitere Informationen über dessen funktionelle Bedeutung notwendig.

Untersuchungen zum Engraftment primärer humaner akuter myeloischer Leukämieblasten in einem immundefizienten Mausmodel

Die akute myeloische Leukämie (AML) stellt ein äußerst heterogenes hämatologisches Krankheitsbild dar, welches durch die unkontrollierte Proliferation unausdifferenzierter und gleichzeitig nicht-funktioneller hämatopoetischer Zellen gekennzeichnet ist. Sowohl die unterschiedliche Zellherkunft, als auch zytogenetische Aberrationen und molekulargenetische Mutationen sorgen für eine große Diversität der Erkrankung. In der Therapie kommen Chemotherapeutika zum Einsatz, welche die Leukämie in eine komplette Remission bringen sollen. Der einzige kurative Ansatz besteht aus der allogenen hämatopoetischen Stammzelltransplantation. Abgesehen von den gewünschten kurativen Effekten, induzieren die im Transplantat befindlichen Spender-T-Lymphozyten ebenfalls die Transplantat-gegen-Wirt Erkrankung – eine Hauptursache von Mortalität und Morbidität nach erfolgter allogener hämatopoetischer Stammzelltransplantation. Da bei vielen Patienten aufgrund ihres Alters und ihrer Begleiterkrankungen eine Transplantation nicht tolerieren und da viele akuten myeloischen Leukämien trotz Chemotherapie progredient sind, schlägt die Therapie fehl und es gibt keine Chance auf Heilung. rnZur Erforschung der pathologischen Prozesse der akuten myeloischen Leukämie sowie für die Entwicklung neuer Therapiekonzepte bedarf es stabiler Tiermodelle, die die maligne Erkrankung des Menschen darstellen können. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Untersuchung des Engraftments humaner primärer akuter myeloischer Leukämien in immuninkompetenten NSG-Mäusen. Die Untersuchungen zeigten, dass lediglich 61,5% der getesteten Leukämien in den Versuchstieren nach der Xenotransplantation nachgewiesen werden konnten. Die Gründe hierfür sind noch nicht ausreichend geklärt, beinhalten jedoch vermutlich Elemente des Homings, des Überlebens der Zelle in der fremden murinen Knochenmarknische, der Abwesenheit spezifischer humaner Wachstumsfaktoren, sowie intrinsische Unterschiede unter den verschiedenen Leukämieproben. Leukämien, die mit einer schlechten Prognose beim Patienten verbunden sind, wachsen in den Tieren stärker an. In den Versuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass Leukämien mit einer Längenmutation des FLT3-Rezeptors eher häufiger in den NSG-Mäusen anwachsen, als wenn diese Mutation fehlt. Die Analyse der erstellten Wachstumskinetiken zweier Leukämien ergab, dass die Höhe des Engraftments in den einzelnen Organen sowohl von der transplantierten Zellmenge, als auch von der Höhe der angesetzten Versuchszeit abhängt. Zudem wurde ein Wachstum humaner T-Lymphozyten in den xenotransplantierten Mäusen beobachtet, welches sowohl mit einem höheren Engraftment der Leukämie in der Maus verbunden war, als auch mit einer höheren Tiersterblichkeit vergesellschaftet war.rnZum Verhindern dieses Wachstums wurden zwei unterschiedliche Methoden angewendet und miteinander verglichen. Dabei erzielten sowohl die medikamentöse Behandlung der Tiere mit dem Calcineurininhibitor Cyclosporin A, als auch die CD3-Depletion der Leukämie vor der Transplantation ein T-Zell-freies Wachstum in den Mäusen, letzteres erwies sich jedoch als das schonendere Verfahren. In den T-Zell-freien Tieren konnte bei dem Großteil der Tiere kein Engraftment im Knochenmark festgestellt werden, was auf einen positiven Einfluss der humanen T-Lymphozyten beim Vorgang des Engraftments schließen lässt.rn

A novel allele of FILAMENTOUS FLOWER reveals new insights on the link between inflorescence and floral meristem organization and flower morphogenesis

Background The Arabidopsis FILAMENTOUS FLOWER (FIL) gene encodes a YABBY (YAB) family putative transcription factor that has been implicated in specifying abaxial cell identities and thus regulating organ polarity of lateral organs. In contrast to double mutants of fil and other YAB genes, fil single mutants display mainly floral and inflorescence morphological defects that do not reflect merely a loss of abaxial identity. Recently, FIL and other YABs have been shown to regulate meristem organization in a non-cell-autonomous manner. In a screen for new mutations affecting floral organ morphology and development, we have identified a novel allele of FIL, fil-9 and characterized its floral and meristem phenotypes. Results The fil-9 mutation results in highly variable disruptions in floral organ numbers and size, partial homeotic transformations, and in defective inflorescence organization. Examination of meristems indicates that both fil-9 inflorescence and floral meristems are enlarged as a result of an increase in cell number, and deformed. Furthermore, primordia emergence from these meristems is disrupted such that several primordia arise simultaneously instead of sequentially. Many of the organs produced by the inflorescence meristems are filamentous, yet they are not considered by the plant as flowers. The severity of both floral organs and meristem phenotypes is increased acropetally and in higher growth temperature. Conclusions Detailed analysis following the development of fil-9 inflorescence and flowers throughout flower development enabled the drawing of a causal link between multiple traits of fil-9 phenotypes. The study reinforces the suggested role of FIL in meristem organization. The loss of spatial and temporal organization of fil-9 inflorescence and floral meristems presumably leads to disrupted cell allocation to developing floral organs and to a blurring of organ whorl boundaries. This disruption is reflected in morphological and organ identity aberrations of fil-9 floral organs and in the production of filamentous organs that are not perceived as flowers. Here, we show the role of FIL in reproductive meristem development and emphasize the potential of using fil mutants to study mersitem organization and the related effects on flower morphogenesis.

Urothelial neoplasms of the urinary bladder occurring in young adult and pediatric patients: a comprehensive review of literature with implications for patient management

Bladder urothelial carcinoma is typically a disease of older individuals and rarely occurs below the age of 40 years. There is debate and uncertainty in the literature regarding the clinicopathologic characteristics of bladder urothelial neoplasms in younger patients compared with older patients, although no consistent age criteria have been used to define "younger" age group categories. Use of the World Health Organization 2004/International Society of Urological Pathology 1998 grading nomenclature and recent molecular studies highlight certain unique features of bladder urothelial neoplasms in young patients, particularly in patients below 20 years of age. In this meta-analysis and review, the clinical, pathologic, and molecular features and risk factors of bladder urothelial neoplasms in patients 40 years or less are presented and analyzed according to decades of presentation. Similar to older patients, bladder urothelial neoplasms in patients 40 years or younger occur more common in male patients, present mainly with gross painless hematuria, and are more commonly located at bladder trigone/ureteral orifices, but in contrast have a greater chance for unifocality. Delay in diagnosis of bladder urothelial neoplasms seems not to be uncommon in younger patients probably because of its relative rarity and the predominance of benign causes of hematuria in this age group causing hesitancy for an aggressive work-up. Most tumors in patients younger than 40 years were low grade. The incidence of low-grade tumors was the lowest in the first 2 decades of life, with incremental increase of the percentage of high-grade tumors with increasing age decades. Classification according to the World Health Organization 2004/International Society of Urological Pathology grading system identified papillary urothelial neoplasms of low malignant potential to be relatively frequent among bladder tumors of young patients particularly in the teenage years. Similar to grade, there was marked predominance of low stage tumors in the first 2 decades of life with gradual inclusion of few higher stage and metastatic tumors in the 2 older decades. Bladder urothelial neoplasms occurring in patients <20 years of age lack or have a much lower incidence of aberrations in chromosome 9, FGFR3, p53, and microsatellite instability and have fewer epigenetic alterations. Tumor recurrence and deaths were infrequent in the first 2 decades and increased gradually in each successive decade, likely influenced by the increased proportion of higher grade and higher stage tumors. Our review of the literature shows that urothelial neoplasms of the bladder occurring in young patients exhibit unique pathologic and molecular features that translate to its more indolent behavior; this distinction is most pronounced in patients <20 years. Our overall inferences have potential implications for choosing appropriate noninvasive diagnostic and surveillance modalities, whenever feasible, and for selecting suitable treatment strategies that factor in quality of life issues vital to younger patients.

Macrocerebellum: Significance and Pathogenic Considerations

Macrocerebellum is a rare finding characterized by an abnormally large cerebellum. Only few patients with a syndromal or isolated macrocerebellum have been reported so far. This article aims to categorize the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings, quantitate the macrocerebellum by volumetric analysis, characterize the neurological and dysmorphic features and cognitive outcome, and report the results of genetic analyses in children with macrocerebellum. All MR images were qualitatively evaluated for infratentorial and supratentorial abnormalities. Volumetric analysis was performed. Data about neurological and dysmorphic features, outcome, and genetic analysis were collected from clinical histories and follow-up examinations. Five patients were included. Volumetric analysis in three patients confirmed large cerebellar size compared to age-matched controls. MR evaluation showed that thickening of the cortical gray matter of the cerebellar hemispheres is responsible for the macrocerebellum. Additional infratentorial and supratentorial abnormalities were present in all patients. Muscular hypotonia, as well as impaired motor and cognitive development, was found in all patients, with ocular movement disorders in three of five patients. The five patients differed significantly in terms of dysmorphic features and involvement of extracerebral organs. Submicroscopic chromosomal aberrations were found in two patients. Macrocerebellum is caused by thickening of the cortical gray matter of the cerebellar hemispheres, suggesting that cerebellar granule cells may be involved in its development. Patients with macrocerebellum show highly heterogeneous neuroimaging, clinical, and genetic findings, suggesting that macrocerebellum is not a nosological entity, but instead represents the structural manifestation of a deeper, more basic biological disturbance common to heterogeneous disorders.

Macroevolutionary patterns in the diversification of parrots: effects of climate change, geological events and key innovations

Aim Parrots are thought to have originated on Gondwana during the Cretaceous. The initial split within crown group parrots separated the New Zealand taxa from the remaining extant species and was considered to coincide with the separation of New Zealand from Gondwana 82-85 Ma, assuming that the diversification of parrots was mainly shaped by vicariance. However, the distribution patterns of several extant parrot groups cannot be explained without invoking transoceanic dispersal, challenging this assumption. Here, we present a temporal and spatial framework for the diversification of parrots using external avian fossils as calibration points in order to evaluate the relative importance of the influences of past climate change, plate tectonics and ecological opportunity. Location Australasian, African, Indo-Malayan and Neotropical regions. Methods Phylogenetic relationships were investigated using partial sequences of the nuclear genes c-mos, RAG-1 and Zenk of 75 parrot and 21 other avian taxa. Divergence dates and confidence intervals were estimated using a Bayesian relaxed molecular clock approach. Biogeographic patterns were evaluated taking temporal connectivity between areas into account. We tested whether diversification remained constant over time and if some parrot groups were more species-rich than expected given their age. Results Crown group diversification of parrots started only about 58 Ma, in the Palaeogene, significantly later than previously thought. The Australasian lories and possibly also the Neotropical Arini were found to be unexpectedly species-rich. Diversification rates probably increased around the Eocene/Oligocene boundary and in the middle Miocene, during two periods of major global climatic aberrations characterized by global cooling. Main conclusions The diversification of parrots was shaped by climatic and geological events as well as by key innovations. Initial vicariance events caused by continental break-up were followed by transoceanic dispersal and local radiations. Habitat shifts caused by climate change and mountain orogenesis may have acted as a catalyst to the diversification by providing new ecological opportunities and challenges as well as by causing isolation as a result of habitat fragmentation. The lories constitute the only highly nectarivorous parrot clade, and their diet shift, associated with morphological innovation, may have acted as an evolutionary key innovation, allowing them to explore underutilized niches and promoting their diversification.

Telomere length is associated with disease severity and declines with age in dyskeratosis congenita

Dyskeratosis congenita is a cancer-prone bone marrow failure syndrome caused by aberrations in telomere biology.