The rise and decline of children's labour participation levels during the early stages of industrialisation. Catalonia (1850-1925)

This article aims to analyse the reasons for the intensive use of childlabour in the 19th century and its subsequent decline in the first thirdof the 20th century in the context of an economy with a highly flexiblelabour supply like that of Catalonia. During the second half of the 19thcentury,factors relating to family economies, such as numerous familiesand low wages for adults, along with the technologies of the time thatrequired manual labour resources, would appear to explain the intensiveuse of child labour to the detriment of schooling. The technologicalchanges that occurred during the first third of the 20th century, thedemographic transition and adult wage increase (for both men and women)explain the schooling of children up to the age of 15 and theconsequent practical abolition of child labour in that new era ofeconomic modernisation.

Entrepreneurial structure of the mercantile company in pre-industrial Catalonia

The mercantile company was the basic form of enterprise in pre-industrial Catalonia. The aim of this paper is to study the formation and development of the mercantile companies in Barcelona whose end was the wholesale and retail sale of textiles in the botigues de teles (textile retail shops) throughout the eighteenth century. These firms were officially registered before a notary and their deeds reveal how these establishments were administered and managed.The study covers a sample of 121 mercantile companies, and the articles and documentation that were put into effect by 32 notaries who were active in Barcelona in the 18th century have been consulted in their entirety. From an initial selection of documentation, a total of 228 deeds registering companies have been found, 107 of which (47%) relate to the creation of companies whose various activities were centred in taverns, textile manufacturing, braiding.... While the 121 companies, which make up our sample and which account for 53% of the deeds registered with the notaries mentioned above, focused exclusively on the management of textile retail shops located in the commercial heart of the city. Thus one point of interest that the documentation reveals is that the majority of the mercantile companies registered by Barcelona notaries throughout the 18th century were establishments which traded in textiles. The first part of the article focuses on the structural characteristics of these enterprises, the number and socio-professional status of the partners and the extent of each partner s involvement in the administration and management. The second part of the article examines the capital investment made by each partner, their rights and obligations agreed on, the sharing out of profits and possible losses and the duration of the companies. The final aim of the paper is to highlight the evolution of these companies through one specific case.

Socio-economic inequalities in health in Catalonia

In this paper we measure the degree of income related inequality in mental health as measured by the GHQ instrument and general health as measured by the EQOL-5D instrument for the Catalan population. We find that income is the main contributor to inequality, although the share of inequality in mental health that can be explained by income is much greater than the corresponding share of inequality in general health. We also find that the variation in demographic structure reduces income related inequality in mental health but increases income related inequality in general health. The regional variations in both instruments for health are striking, with the Barcelona districts faring relatively bad with respect to the rest of geographical areas and Lleida being the health region where, all else held equal, the population reports the greatest level of health. A big share of inequality in the two health measures, but specially mental health, is due to the favourable position in both health and income of those who enjoy an indefinite contract with respect to the rest of individuals. We also find that risky working conditions affect both health measures and are able to explain an important share of socio-economic inequality.

Social spending and demographics: The role of public policies in the intergenerational redistribution of income. Empirical evidence from Spain and Catalonia

The demographic shift underway in Southern Europe requires a revision of some of thefundamental principles of the traditional welfare state. We analyze the evolution of several aspects of welfare and social expenditure over the last two decades. We find that in the context of the present demographic changes and real estate boom current social and pension policy leads to a new distribution of benefits and burdens which is highly intergenerationally unequal. We argue for a revised definition of public policy based on Musgrave's proposition as a possible rule for an intergenerationally fair distribution.

University admission marks in Catalonia: Some highlights from the empirical research

The results of the examinations taken by graduated high school studentswho want to enrol at a Catalan university are here studied. To do so,the authors address several issues related to the equity of the system:reliability of grading, difficulty and discrimination power of the exams.The general emphasis is put upon the concurrent research and empiricalevidence about the properties of the examination items and scores. Aftera discussion about the limitations of the exams' format and appropriatenessof the instruments used in the study, the article concludes with somesuggestions to improve such examinations.

Transcatheter aortic valve implantation (TAVI): state of the art techniques and future perspectives.

Transcatheter aortic valve therapies are the newest established techniques for the treatment of high risk patients affected by severe symptomatic aortic valve stenosis. The transapical approach requires a left anterolateral mini-thoracotomy, whereas the transfemoral method requires an adequate peripheral vascular access and can be performed fully percutaneously. Alternatively, the trans-subclavian access has been recently proposed as a third promising approach. Depending on the technique, the fine stent-valve positioning can be performed with or without contrast injections. The transapical echo-guided stent-valve implantation without angiography (the Lausanne technique) relies entirely on transoesophageal echocardiogramme imaging for the fine stent-valve positioning and it has been proved that this technique prevents the onset of postoperative contrast-related acute kidney failure. Recent published reports have shown good hospital outcomes and short-term results after transcatheter aortic valve implantation, but there are no proven advantages in using the transfemoral or the transapical technique. In particular, the transapical series have a higher mean logistic Euroscore of 27-35%, a procedural success rate above 95% and a mean 30-day mortality between 7.5 and 17.5%, whereas the transfemoral results show a lower logistic Euroscore of 23-25.5%, a procedural success rate above 90% and a 30-day mortality of 7-10.8%. Nevertheless, further clinical trials and long-term results are mandatory to confirm this positive trend. Future perspectives in transcatheter aortic valve therapies would be the development of intravascular devices for the ablation of the diseased valve leaflets and the launch of new stent-valves with improved haemodynamic, different sizes and smaller delivery systems.

Cyclododecane exposure in the field of conservation and restoration of art objects

PURPOSE: Recent work practices in the conservation and restoration involve the use of cyclododecane (CDD, CAS 294-62-2) to protect fragile artifacts during their handling or transportation. Little is known about its toxicity, and no previous exposure has been reported. A short field investigation was conducted to characterize the exposure conditions to both CDD vapors and aerosols.METHODS: Measurements were conducted in the laboratory of conservation and restoration of the archeological service in Bern (Switzerland). Three indoor and four outdoor typical work situations, either during brush or spray gun applications, were investigated. Measurements were performed on charcoal adsorbent tube and analyzed by a gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector.RESULTS: Measurements have been conducted during both brush and spray gun applications. Indoor exposures were of 0.75-15.5 mg/m(3), while outdoors exposures were 19.5-53.9 mg/m(3). Exposures appear to be extremely localized due to both physicochemical properties and application methods of the CDD. Vapor exposure increases dramatically with the confinement of the workplace.CONCLUSION: Preventive measures should be undertaken to limit as much as possible these exposures. Field work in confined areas (ditches, underground) is of particular concern. CDD-coated artifacts or materials should be stored in ventilated areas to avoid delayed exposures. [Authors]

Necrophagous species of Diptera and Coleoptera in northeastern Brazil: state of the art and challenges for the Forensic Entomologist

Inventories on necrophagous insects carried out in Brazil encompass mostly species from the southeastern and central-western regions of the country. This review aims to produce the first checklist of necrophagous Diptera and Coleoptera species of forensic relevance in northeastern Brazil, an area that concentrates high rates of homicides. We performed a literature survey on scientific articles, theses and dissertations regarding necrophagous insect species in the region, and contacted scientists who develop research on forensic entomology. Fifty-two species of Diptera belonging to eight families with previous record of necrophagy were reported in the region: Sarcophagidae, Calliphoridae, Muscidae, Fanniidae, Piophilidae, Phoridae, Anthomyiidae and Stratiomyidae. Coleopteran species from six families of forensic relevance were registered, although taxonomical identification remained superficial. Bait traps were the most frequent methodology used, followed by collection on animal carcasses. Seven Dipteran species from two families were registered on human cadavers. All species had been previously reported in other Brazilian states and/or other countries, although none has been effectively used in legal procedures in the region. The status of research on forensic entomology in northeastern Brazil is incipient, and the checklist produced here contributes to the knowledge on the local diversity of necrophagous insects.

La Manie épistolaire : d'une analyse textuelle à une poétique des lettres asilaires conservées à la Collection de l'Art Brut

Relevant globalement de l'analyse de discours, cette thèse se propose en deux temps (questions de méthode, puis analyses) d'étudier dans le détail et d'interpréter des lettres asilaires initialement gardées au sein d'archives médicales de différents hôpitaux psychiatriques de Suisse romande et désormais conservées à la Collection de l'Art Brut, à Lausanne. Ce transfert institutionnel noue le problème central posé par le corpus recueilli : quelle lecture accorder à ces productions qui, dans ces conditions, semblent échapper à toute catégorisation générique a priori ou, en reformulant l'interrogation, en quoi est-ce que les oeuvres d'art brut dépassent-elles leur statut de documents cliniques? Pour répondre à cette ample question, il faut une théorie du langage qui conceptualise des modalités de réception. En l'occurrence, les textes retenus sont abordés à partir de la théorie de Yénonciation, élaborée au moins depuis Emile Benveniste, qui implique de saisir le langage non à partir de la perspective de l'interprété mais depuis celle de l'interprétant.¦Une fois ce fondement énonciatif posé, de nombreux problèmes peuvent être posés et permettent d'architecturer le travail. L'énonciation installe en premier lieu l'univers du discours, qui implique de tenir globalement compte du primat de l'interdiscursivité, autant dans le geste raisonné de constitution du corpus que dans la conduite de son interprétation. En l'occurrence, la thématique de la folie est ici centrale : les production retenues ont en effet d'abord fait l'objet du diagnostic psychiatrique et y ont eu valeur de symptômes ; elles ont ensuite intégré les rangs de la Collection de l'Art Brut, dont les principaux artisans (Jean Dubuffet et Michel Thévoz en tête) ont beaucoup insisté sur le renouvellement du regard à apporter sur la folie, celle-ci y étant considérée pour ses vertus créatrices et contestatrices.¦Le cadrage (doublement) dialogique du corpus implique à grands traits de lier la folie et le langage ou, plus spécifiquement, de faire de la folie non plus une pathologie mais un problème de (théorie du) langage. Pour conceptualiser ce passage, les notions de manie et de manière (Dessons) sont primordiales. La première est dotée d'une mémoire psychiatrique et fait de la folie une maladie mentale dont souffre un individu doté de son empirie et d'une psycho-biologie. La seconde, en revanche, est énonciative et concerne la subjectivation d'un langage, si spécifique qu'il implique de sortir des catégories linguistiques conventionnelles pour le désigner et le décrire, inaptes à le rationaliser. La manière rejoint donc la folie parce qu'elle rend, littéralement, fou (elle déstabilise nos grilles préformatées de lecture). En ce sens, elle implique, dans le discours, de passer d'une énonciation qui n'est pas une simple interlocution (où le langage permet à un sujet de communiquer à propos de quelque chose à un autre sujet) à une énonciation dont la réception fait problème.¦Pour saisir cette énonciation dans le discours, il importe de se débarrasser d'une rhétorique des genres pour passer, radicalement, à une poétique de Γénonciation. La rhétorique ne peut appréhender la spécificité des textes retenus ou, autrement dit, leur mode propre de signifier, pour plusieurs raisons : elle se centre sur les effets provoqués par le discours sur un « auditoire » en vue de certaines visées préalables, elle instrumentalise le langage à des fins uniquement communicatives, elle repose sur un réalisme linguistique (le rapport presque naturel entre le signifiant et le concept qu'il est censé transcrire de façon transparente), elle n'a pas de théorie du sujet (sinon un bien trop flou « locuteur »).¦Une poétique de l'énonciation offre « au contraire » (l'opposition est caricaturale ici) l'avantage de traiter dans le discours d'une énonciation qui n'est pas pensée à partir de modèles collectifs (genres, signe linguistique, ...). Dans ce dernier cas, l'appréhension du discours ne peut considérer que des variations (quand ce n'est pas des « déviances » ou des symptômes) internes à tel ou tel modèle générique, pas remis en cause comme tel. En somme, une poétique renverse la pensée du langage : elle ne l'appréhende plus à partir de catégories qui lui sont externes, mais s'intéresse à des « procédés » indésignables a priori, ou, plus globalement, à un mode spécifique de signifier, c'est-à-dire qu'il ne « fait sens » que pour un seul langage - et pas un autre.¦Le langage est alors si subjectivé qu'il confond son statut d'objet avec celui de sujet. Pour preuve, on ne le désigne plus dans le discours à partir d'une catégorie sociale générique (« c'est une lettre »), mais à partir d'un « nom d'auteur » ou, plus spécifiquement, une manière (« c'est un Aloïse », par exemple pour le cas d'une oeuvre apparentée à l'art brut), sujet théorique de l'énonciation artistique. Cette forme-sujet, comme la nommait Henri Meschonnic dans sa théorie dite du poème, se reconnaît dans l'unité (sémantique) du texte et ouvre dans le discours à un système-sujet d'organisation identifiable à l'échelle élargie d'une oeuvre. Elle permet d'inscrire pleinement la démarche dans le cadre englobant non seulement de l'analyse du discours mais aussi d'une anthropologie linguistique.¦En somme, l'objet au centre de nos préoccupations fait de ce passage (d'une rhétorique à une poétique) un problème épistémologique. Les oeuvres d'art brut impliquent de passer d'une discursivité à une autre, d'une folie psychiatrique à une folie artistique, déplaçant la folie dans le champ social. Le langage dessine bel et bien la société. Ce travail permet finalement de comprendre la contribution du langage à la construction des réalités sociales, dans l'élaboration du sens qui s'y fabrique. Son orientation herméneutique aboutit à identifier une nouvelle figure de l'altérité, inscrite au sein même de la pensée linguistique.