Precision horticulture: application on apple orchards

Precision horticulture and spatial analysis applied to orchards are a growing and evolving part of precision agriculture technology. The aim of this discipline is to reduce production costs by monitoring and analysing orchard-derived information to improve crop performance in an environmentally sound manner. Georeferencing and geostatistical analysis coupled to point-specific data mining allow to devise and implement management decisions tailored within the single orchard. Potential applications range from the opportunity to verify in real time along the season the effectiveness of cultural practices to achieve the production targets in terms of fruit size, number, yield and, in a near future, fruit quality traits. These data will impact not only the pre-harvest but their effect will extend to the post-harvest sector of the fruit chain. Chapter 1 provides an updated overview on precision horticulture , while in Chapter 2 a preliminary spatial statistic analysis of the variability in apple orchards is provided before and after manual thinning; an interpretation of this variability and how it can be managed to maximize orchard performance is offered. Then in Chapter 3 a stratification of spatial data into management classes to interpret and manage spatial variation on the orchard is undertaken. An inverse model approach is also applied to verify whether the crop production explains environmental variation. In Chapter 4 an integration of the techniques adopted before is presented. A new key for reading the information gathered within the field is offered. The overall goal of this Dissertation was to probe into the feasibility, the desirability and the effectiveness of a precision approach to fruit growing, following the lines of other areas of agriculture that already adopt this management tool. As existing applications of precision horticulture already had shown, crop specificity is an important factor to be accounted for. This work focused on apple because of its importance in the area where the work was carried out, and worldwide.

Progetto di riqualificazione dell'area ex Eridania della città di Forlì : città della cultura

Il progetto si sviluppa nell’area dell’ex Eridania di Forlì, un’area molto vasta, adiacente al centro storico e come tema della Tesi abbiamo deciso di studiare un progetto che potesse contenere funzioni pubbliche a disposizione di tutti i cittadini. Ci è sembrato interessante ragionare sull’area in questi termini poiché dagli studi effettuati è risultato che la città di Forlì è priva di un polo culturale compatto che possa costituire un punto di ritrovo per i forlivesi. Nelle nostre intenzioni gli spazi progettati dovranno ospitare attività espositive, concerti, spettacoli all’aperto, rappresentazioni teatrali, conferenze e laboratori artistici che coinvolgano tutte le fasce d’età. Importante per noi era portare all’interno di quest’area dismessa nuove funzioni culturali di cui Forlì è oggi carente. Dall’analisi svolta sulla città è emerso che gli spazi esistenti dedicati ad attività per lo spettacolo non sono sufficienti a soddisfare le esigenze dei cittadini sia a livello quantitativo che di assortimento. Abbiamo perciò deciso di inserire nel progetto auditorium, teatro, teatro all’aperto, laboratori artistici, zone espositive, attività annesse come uffici per l’amministrazione, biglietterie, info point e un grande parco. La prima problematica che abbiamo cercato di risolvere è stata quella dell’attraversamento della ferrovia e, più in particolare, di un collegamento con il centro storico della città e con lo sviluppo di Forlì in generale che l’ha sempre vista come un limite invalicabile. Il problema è stato affrontato ipotizzando la realizzazione di un edificio su via Vittorio Veneto adibito a commercio e terziario dal quale, attraverso un ponte che oltrepassa la ferrovia, si giunge a un edificio, all’interno dell’area, che ospita i servizi di risalita, alcuni uffici e un bar. La scelta è stata quella di non porci ortogonalmente agli edifici affacciati su questa importante arteria ma di legarci all’intero progetto che segue l’orientamento dettato dalle preesistenze. All’interno dell’area spicca per dimensioni il corpo principale dell’ex Eridania che, conserviamo eliminando le superfetazioni e intervenendo per la messa in sicurezza e per permetterne l’adeguata fruibilità. La scelta di riordinare il prospetto Nord di questo edificio nasce dalla volontà di realizzare una grande corte sulla quale si affacciassero tutti gli edifici ad esclusione dei vecchi magazzini che ne risultano racchiusi all’interno e del teatro all’aperto che rimane immerso nel verde. Per definire questa corte abbiamo pensato a un porticato che proseguisse, seguendone l’aspetto, le dimensioni e il ritmo dei pilastri, quello già esistente a lato dell’edificio conservato dell’ex zuccherificio e che fungesse da percorso coperto per raggiungere i diversi laboratori artistici che si innestano su questo. A chiudere il quarto lato della corte sono il teatro e l’auditorium, simmetrici rispetto all’asse del progetto che è dato dalle vasche originariamente usate per il lavaggio delle barbabietole, allineate con l’edificio principale dell’ex zuccherificio. Per rendere la direzione ancora più evidente decidiamo di proseguirla con un tratto d’acqua diretto verso il teatro all’aperto, conclusione della stessa. Gli edifici di progetto sono immersi in un grande parco caratterizzato dalla vegetazione già esistente nell’area, cresciuta durante l’abbandono della stessa. Così facendo manteniamo delle zone che possono definirsi boschive, dove la vegetazione è molto fitta e intricata, e altre invece più libere dagli alberi e quindi utilizzabili per altre funzioni ricreative. Un diverso trattamento è riservato alla zona di parco racchiusa tra i due percorsi rettilinei e simmetrici che collegano il teatro all’aperto alla piazza: qui si è preferito eliminare la vegetazione esistente ricavando un grande prato libero definito da filari di alberi opportunamente disposti per focalizzare l’attenzione sul teatro stesso.

Controllo dell'atto di prensione: coinvolgimento dell'area V6A nell'orientamento del polso

Prehension in an act of coordinated reaching and grasping. The reaching component is concerned with bringing the hand to object to be grasped (transport phase); the grasping component refers to the shaping of the hand according to the object features (grasping phase) (Jeannerod, 1981). Reaching and grasping involve different muscles, proximal and distal muscles respectively, and are controlled by different parietofrontal circuit (Jeannerod et al., 1995): a medial circuit, involving area of superior parietal lobule and dorsal premotor area 6 (PMd) (dorsomedial visual stream), is mainly concerned with reaching; a lateral circuit, involving the inferior parietal lobule and ventral premotor area 6 (PMv) (dorsolateral visual stream), with grasping. Area V6A is located in the caudalmost part of the superior parietal lobule, so it belongs to the dorsomedial visual stream; it contains neurons sensitive to visual stimuli (Galletti et al. 1993, 1996, 1999) as well as cells sensitive to the direction of gaze (Galletti et al. 1995) and cells showing saccade-related activity (Nakamura et al. 1999; Kutz et al. 2003). Area V6A contains also arm-reaching neurons likely involved in the control of the direction of the arm during movements towards objects in the peripersonal space (Galletti et al. 1997; Fattori et al. 2001). The present results confirm this finding and demonstrate that during the reach-to-grasp the V6A neurons are also modulated by the orientation of the wrist. Experiments were approved by the Bioethical Committee of the University of Bologna and were performed in accordance with National laws on care and use of laboratory animals and with the European Communities Council Directive of 24th November 1986 (86/609/EEC), recently revised by the Council of Europe guidelines (Appendix A of Convention ETS 123). Experiments were performed in two awake Macaca fascicularis. Each monkey was trained to sit in a primate chair with the head restrained to perform reaching and grasping arm movements in complete darkness while gazing a small fixation point. The object to be grasped was a handle that could have different orientation. We recorded neural activity from 163 neurons of the anterior parietal sulcus; 116/163 (71%) neurons were modulated by the reach-to-grasp task during the execution of the forward movements toward the target (epoch MOV), 111/163 (68%) during the pulling of the handle (epoch HOLD) and 102/163 during the execution of backward movements (epoch M2) (t_test, p ≤ 0.05). About the 45% of the tested cells turned out to be sensitive to the orientation of the handle (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05). To study how the distal components of the movement, such as the hand preshaping during the reaching of the handle, could influence the neuronal discharge, we compared the neuronal activity during the reaching movements towards the same spatial location in reach-to-point and reach-to-grasp tasks. Both tasks required proximal arm movements; only the reach-to-grasp task required distal movements to orient the wrist and to shape the hand to grasp the handle. The 56% of V6A cells showed significant differences in the neural discharge (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05) between the reach-to-point and the reach-to-grasp tasks during MOV, 54% during HOLD and 52% during M2. These data show that reaching and grasping are processed by the same population of neurons, providing evidence that the coordination of reaching and grasping takes place much earlier than previously thought, i.e., in the parieto-occipital cortex. The data here reported are in agreement with results of lesions to the medial posterior parietal cortex in both monkeys and humans, and with recent imaging data in humans, all of them indicating a functional coupling in the control of reaching and grasping by the medial parietofrontal circuit.

Atmospheric radiative transfer in multiple scattering conditions. Application to NWP models.

High spectral resolution radiative transfer (RT) codes are essential tools in the study of the radiative energy transfer in the Earth atmosphere and a support for the development of parameterizations for fast RT codes used in climate and weather prediction models. Cirrus clouds cover permanently 30% of the Earth's surface, representing an important contribution to the Earth-atmosphere radiation balance. The work has been focussed on the development of the RT model LBLMS. The model, widely tested in the infra-red spectral range, has been extended to the short wave spectrum and it has been used in comparison with airborne and satellite measurements to study the optical properties of cirrus clouds. A new database of single scattering properties has been developed for mid latitude cirrus clouds. Ice clouds are treated as a mixture of ice crystals with various habits. The optical properties of the mixture are tested in comparison to radiometric measurements in selected case studies. Finally, a parameterization of the mixture for application to weather prediction and global circulation models has been developed. The bulk optical properties of ice crystals are parameterized as functions of the effective dimension of measured particle size distributions that are representative of mid latitude cirrus clouds. Tests with the Limited Area Weather Prediction model COSMO have shown the impact of the new parameterization with respect to cirrus cloud optical properties based on ice spheres.