Regulatory roles of microtubule-associated proteins in neuronal morphogenesis. Involvement of the extracellular matrix

As a result of recent investigations, the cytoskeleton can be viewed as a cytoplasmic system of interconnected filaments with three major integrative levels: self-assembling macromolecules, filamentous polymers, e.g., microtubules, intermediate filaments and actin filaments, and supramolecular structures formed by bundles of these filaments or networks resulting from cross-bridges between these major cytoskeletal polymers. The organization of this biological structure appears to be sensitive to fine spatially and temporally dependent regulatory signals. In differentiating neurons, regulation of cytoskeleton organization is particularly relevant, and the microtubule-associated protein (MAP) tau appears to play roles in the extension of large neuritic processes and axons as well as in the stabilization of microtubular polymers along these processes. Within this context, tau is directly involved in defining neuronal polarity as well as in the generation of neuronal growth cones. There is increasing evidence that elements of the extracellular matrix contribute to the control of cytoskeleton organization in differentiating neurons, and that these regulations could be mediated by changes in MAP activity. In this brief review, we discuss the possible roles of tau in mediating the effects of extracellular matrix components on the internal cytoskeletal arrays and its organization in growing neurons.

The 5alpha-reductase type 1, but not type 2, gene is expressed in anagen hairs plucked from the vertex area of the scalp of hirsute women and normal individuals

The aim of the present study was to determine the expression of the genes for type 1 (SDR5A1) and type 2 (SDR5A2) 5alpha-reductase isoenzymes in scalp hairs plucked from 33 hirsute patients (20 with polycystic ovary syndrome and 13 with idiopathic hirsutism) and compare it with that of 10 men and 15 normal women. SDR5A1 and SDR5A2 expression was estimated by RT-PCR using the gene of the ubiquitously expressed protein ß2-microglobulin as an internal control. The results are expressed as arbitrary units in relation to ß2-microglobulin absorbance (mean ± SEM). SDR5A2 expression was not detected in any hair samples analyzed in this study. No differences were found in SDR5A1 mRNA levels between men and normal women (0.78 ± 0.05 vs 0.74 ± 0.06, respectively). SDR5A1 gene expression in the cells of hair plucked from the scalp of normal women (0.85 ± 0.04) and of women with polycystic ovary syndrome (0.78 ± 0.05) and idiopathic hirsutism (0.80 ± 0.06) was also similar. These results indicate that SDR5A1 gene expression in the follicular keratinocytes from the vertex area of the scalp seems not to be related to the differences in hair growth observed between normal men and women and hirsute patients. Further studies are needed to investigate the expression of the 5alpha-reductase genes in other scalp follicular compartments such as dermal papillae, and also in hair follicles from other body sites, in order to elucidate the mechanism of androgen action on the hair growth process and related diseases.

Protection against neurotoxicity by an autophagic mechanism

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effects of 3-n-butylphthalide (NBP) on a 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+)-induced cellular model of Parkinson217;s disease (PD) and to illustrate the potential mechanism of autophagy in this process. For this purpose, rat PC12 pheochromocytoma cells were treated with MPP+ (1 mM) for 24 h following pretreatment with NBP (0.1 mM). Cell metabolic viability was determined by the MTT assay and cell ultrastructure was examined by transmission electron microscopy. The intracellular distribution and expression of α-synuclein and microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 (LC3) were detected by immunocytochemistry and Western blotting. Our results demonstrated that: 1) NBP prevented MPP+-induced cytotoxicity in PC12 cells by promoting metabolic viability. 2) NBP induced the accumulation of autophagosomes in MPP+-treated PC12 cells. 3) Further study of the molecular mechanism demonstrated that NBP enhanced the colocalization of α-synuclein and LC3 and up-regulated the protein level of LC3-II. These results demonstrate that NBP protects PC12 cells against MPP+-induced neurotoxicity by activating autophagy-mediated α-synuclein degradation, implying that it may be a potential effective therapeutic agent for the treatment of PD.

Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) activity regulates osteoblast differentiation and mineralization in the SAOS-2 cell line

Tissue transglutaminase (type II, TG2) has long been postulated to directly promote skeletal matrix calcification and play an important role in ossification. However, limited information is available on the expression, function and modulating mechanism of TG2 during osteoblast differentiation and mineralization. To address these issues, we cultured the well-established human osteosarcoma cell line SAOS-2 with osteo-inductive conditioned medium and set up three time points (culture days 4, 7, and 14) to represent different stages of SAOS-2 differentiation. Osteoblast markers, mineralization, as well as TG2 expression and activity, were then assayed in each stage. Furthermore, we inhibited TG activity with cystamine and then checked SAOS-2 differentiation and mineralization in each stage. The results showed that during the progression of osteoblast differentiation SAOS-2 cells presented significantly high levels of osteocalcin (OC) mRNA, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) and collagen I, significantly high alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity, and the increased formation of calcified matrix. With the same tendency, TG2 expression and activity were up-regulated. Furthermore, inhibition of TG activity resulted in a significant decrease of OC, collagen I, and BMP-2 mRNA and of ALP activity and mineralization. This study demonstrated that TG2 is involved in osteoblast differentiation and may play a role in the initiation and regulation of the mineralization processes. Moreover, the modulating effects of TG2 on osteoblasts may be related to BMP-2.

BMP-2 and titanium particles synergistically activate osteoclast formation

A previous study showed that BMP-2 (bone morphogenetic protein-2) and wear debris can separately support osteoclast formation induced by the receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL). However, the effect of BMP-2 on wear debris-induced osteoclast formation is unclear. In this study, we show that neither titanium particles nor BMP-2 can induce osteoclast formation in RAW 264.7 mouse leukemic monocyte macrophage cells but that BMP-2 synergizes with titanium particles to enhance osteoclast formation in the presence of RANKL, and that at a low concentration, BMP-2 has an optimal effect to stimulate the size and number of multinuclear osteoclasts, expression of osteoclast genes, and resorption area. Our data also clarify that the effects caused by the increase in BMP-2 on phosphorylated SMAD levels such as c-Fos expression increased throughout the early stages of osteoclastogenesis. BMP-2 and titanium particles stimulate the expression of p-JNK, p-P38, p-IkB, and P50 compared with the titanium group. These data suggested that BMP-2 may be a crucial factor in titanium particle-mediated osteoclast formation.

Diabetes mellitus affects the biomechanical function of the callus and the expression of TGF-beta1 and BMP2 in an early stage of fracture healing

Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) are important regulators of bone repair and regeneration. In this study, we examined whether TGF-β1 and BMP-2 expressions were delayed during bone healing in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Tibial fractures were created in 95 diabetic and 95 control adult male Wistar rats of 10 weeks of age. At 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 weeks after fracture induction, five rats were sacrificed from each group. The expressions of TGF-β1 and BMP2 in the fractured tibias were measured by immunohistochemistry and quantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction, weekly for the first 5 weeks post-fracture. Mechanical parameters (bending rigidity, torsional rigidity, destruction torque) of the healing bones were also assessed at 3, 4, and 5 weeks post-fracture, after the rats were sacrificed. The bending rigidity, torsional rigidity and destruction torque of the two groups increased continuously during the healing process. The diabetes group had lower mean values for bending rigidity, torsional rigidity and destruction torque compared with the control group (P<0.05). TGF-β1 and BMP-2 expression were significantly lower (P<0.05) in the control group than in the diabetes group at postoperative weeks 1, 2, and 3. Peak levels of TGF-β1 and BMP-2 expression were delayed by 1 week in the diabetes group compared with the control group. Our results demonstrate that there was a delayed recovery in the biomechanical function of the fractured bones in diabetic rats. This delay may be associated with a delayed expression of the growth factors TGF-β1 and BMP-2.

Moving lipids : ceramides, glycosphingolipids and the glycolipid transfer protein

Lipid movement in cells occurs by a variety of methods. Lipids diffuse freely along the lateral plane of a membrane and can translocate between the lipid leaflets, either spontaneously or with the help of enzymes. Lipid translocation between the different cellular compartments predominantly takes place through vesicular transport. Specialized lipid transport proteins (LTPs) have also emerged as important players in lipid movement, as well as other cellular processes. In this thesis we have studied the glycolipid transport protein (GLTP), a protein that transports glycosphingolipids (GSLs). While the in vitro properties of GLTP have been well characterized, its cell biological role remains elusive. By altering GSL and GLTP levels in cells, we have extracted clues towards the protein's function. Based on the results presented in this thesis and in previous works, we hypothesize that GLTP is involved in the GSL homeostasis in cells. GLTP most likely functions as a transporter or sensor of newly synthesized glucosylceramide (GlcCer), at or near the site of GlcCer synthesis. GLTP also seems to be involved in the synthesis of globotriacylceramide, perhaps in a manner that is similar to that of the fourphosphate adaptor protein 2, another GlcCer-transporting LTP. Additionally, we have developed and studied a novel method of introducing ceramides to cells, using a solvent-free approach. Ceramides are important lipids that are implicated in several cellular functions. Their role as proapoptotic molecules is particularly evident. Ceramides form stable bilayer structures when complexed with cholesterol phosphocholine (CholPC), a large-headgroup sterol. By adding ceramide/CholPC complexes to the growth medium, various chain length ceramides were successfully delivered to cells in culture. The uptake rate was dependent on the chain length of the ceramide, where shorter lipids were internalized more quickly. The rate of uptake also determined how the cells metabolised the ceramides. Faster uptake favored conversion of ceramide to GlcCer, whereas slower delivery resulted mainly in breakdown of the lipid.

Functional genomics of O-glucosyltransferases from Concord grape (Vitis labrusca)

Grape (Vitis spp.) is a culturally and economically important crop plant that has been cultivated for thousands of years, primarily for the production of wine. Grape berries accumulate a myriad of phenylpropanoid secondary metabolites, many of which are glucosylated in plantae More than 90 O-glucosyltransferases have been cloned and biochemically characterized from plants, only two of which have been isolated from Vitis spp. The world-wide economic importance of grapes as a crop plant, the human health benefits associated with increased consumption of grape-derived metabolites, the biological relevance of glucosylation, and the lack of information about Vitis glucosyltransferases has inspired the identification, cloning and biochemical characterization of five novel "family 1" O-glucosyltransferases from Concord grape (Vitis labrusca cv. Concord). Protein purification and associated protein sequencIng led to the molecular cloning of UDP-glucose: resveratrollhydroxycinnamic acid O-glucosyltransferase (VLRSGT) from Vitis labrusca berry mesocarp tissue. In addition to being the first glucosyltransferase which accepts trans-resveratrol as a substrate to be characterized in vitro, the recombinant VLRSGT preferentially produces the glucose esters of hydroxycinnamic acids at pH 6.0, and the glucosides of trans-resveratrol and flavonols at 'pH 9.0; the first demonstration of pH-dependent bifunctional glucosylation for this class of enzymes. Gene expression and metabolite profiling support a role for this enzyme in the bifuncitonal glucosylation ofstilbenes and hydroxycinnamic acids in plantae A homology-based approach to cloning was used to identify three enzymes from the Vitis vinifera TIGR grape gene index which had high levels of protein sequence iii identity to previously characterized UDP-glucose: anthocyanin 5-0-glucosyltransferases. Molecular cloning and biochemical characterization demonstrated that these enzymes (rVLOGTl, rVLOGT2, rVLOGT3) glucosylate the 7-0-position of flavonols and the xenobiotic 2,4,5-trichlorophenol (TCP), but not anthocyanins. Variable gene expression throughout grape berry development and enzyme assays with native grape berry protein are consistent with a role for these enzymes in the glucosylation of flavonols; while the broad substrate specificity, the ability of these enzymes to glucosylate TCP and expression of these genes in tissues which are subject to pathogen attack (berry, flower, bud) is consistent with a role for these genes in the plant defense response. Additionally, the Vitis labrusca UDP-glucose: flavonoid 3-0-glucosyltransferase (VL3GT) was identified, cloned and characterized. VL3GT has 96 % protein sequence identity to the previously characterized Vitis vinifera flavonoid 3-0-glucosyltransferase (VV3GT); and glucosylates the 3-0-position of anthocyanidins and flavonols in vitro. Despite high levels of protein sequence identity, VL3GT has distinct biochemical characteristics (as compared to VV3GT), including a preference for B-ring methylated flavonoids and the inability to use UDP-galactose as a donor substrate. RT-PCR analysis of VL3GT gene expression and enzyme assays with native grape protein is consistent with an in planta role for this enzyme in the glucosylation of anthocyanidins,but not flavonols. These studies reveal the power of combining several biochemistry- and molecular biology-based tools to identify, clone, biochemically characterize and elucidate the in planta function of several biologically relevant O-glucosyltransferases from Vitis spp.

Prostate Cancer and the Search for Novel Biomarkers

The primary objective of this research project was to identify prostate cancer (PCa) -specific biomarkers from urine. This was done using a multi-faceted approach that targeted (1) the genome (DNA); (2) the transcriptome (mRNA and miRNA); and (3) the proteome. Toward this end, urine samples were collected from ten healthy individuals, eight men with PCa and twelve men with enlarged, non-cancerous prostates or with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH). Urine samples were also collected from the same patients (PCa and BPH) as part of a two-year follow-up. Initially urinary nucleic acids and proteins were assessed both qualitatively and quantitatively for characteristics either unique or common among the groups. Subsequently macromolecules were pooled within each group and assessed for either protein composition via LC-MS/MS or microRNA (miRNA) expression by microarray. A number of potential candidates including miRNAs were identified as being deregulated in either pooled PCa or BPH with respect to the healthy control group. Candidate biomarkers were then assessed among individual samples to validate their utility in diagnosing PCa and/or differentiating PCa from BPH. A number of potential targets including deregulation of miRNAs 1825 and 484, and mRNAs for Fibronectin and Tumor Protein 53 Inducible Nuclear Protein 2 (TP53INP2) appeared to be indicative of PCa. Furthermore, deregulation of miR-498 appeared to be indicative of BPH. The sensitivities and specificities associated with using deregulation in many of these targets to subsequently predict PCa or BPH were also determined. This research project has identified a number of potential targets, detectable in urine, which merit further investigation towards the accurate identification of PCa and its discrimination from BPH. The significance of this work is amplified by the non-invasive nature of the sample source from which these candidates were derived, urine. Many cancer biomarker discovery studies have tended to focus primarily on blood (plasma or serum) and/or tissue samples. This is one of the first PCa biomarker studies to focus exclusively on urine as a sample source.

Requirements for the selective degradation of CD4 receptor molecules by the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein in the endoplasmic reticulum.

BACKGROUND: HIV-1 Vpu targets newly synthesized CD4 receptor for rapid degradation by a process reminiscent of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated protein degradation (ERAD). Vpu is thought to act as an adaptor protein, connecting CD4 to the ubiquitin (Ub)-proteasome degradative system through an interaction with beta-TrCP, a component of the SCFbeta-TrCP E3 Ub ligase complex. RESULTS: Here, we provide direct evidence indicating that Vpu promotes trans-ubiquitination of CD4 through recruitment of SCFbeta-TrCP in human cells. To examine whether Ub conjugation occurs on the cytosolic tail of CD4, we substituted all four Ub acceptor lysine residues for arginines. Replacement of cytosolic lysine residues reduced but did not prevent Vpu-mediated CD4 degradation and ubiquitination, suggesting that Vpu-mediated CD4 degradation is not entirely dependent on the ubiquitination of cytosolic lysines and as such might also involve ubiquitination of other sites. Cell fractionation studies revealed that Vpu enhanced the levels of ubiquitinated forms of CD4 detected in association with not only the ER membrane but also the cytosol. Interestingly, significant amounts of membrane-associated ubiquitinated CD4 appeared to be fully dislocated since they could be recovered following sodium carbonate salt treatment. Finally, expression of a transdominant negative mutant of the AAA ATPase Cdc48/p97 involved in the extraction of ERAD substrates from the ER membrane inhibited Vpu-mediated CD4 degradation. CONCLUSION: Taken together, these results are consistent with a model whereby HIV-1 Vpu targets CD4 for degradation by an ERAD-like process involving most likely poly-ubiquitination of the CD4 cytosolic tail by SCFbeta-TrCP prior to dislocation of receptor molecules across the ER membrane by a process that depends on the AAA ATPase Cdc48/p97.

Étude du rôle de l’auto-antigène nucléaire centromérique B (CENP-B) et des auto-anticorps anti-CENP-B dans l’activation des cellules musculaires lisses vasculaires : implication potentielle dans la pathophysiologie de la sclérose systémique

La sclérose systémique (ScS) est une maladie auto-immune dont l’un des principaux auto-anticorps, dirigé contre la protéine centromérique B (CENP-B), est fortement associé à l’hypertension artérielle pulmonaire, l’une des causes majeures de décès dû à la ScS. L’hypertension résulte de l’occlusion progressive des vaisseaux suite à une hyperactivation des cellules musculaires lisses (CML) de la paroi vasculaire. Cependant, les facteurs responsables de ce remodelage vasculaire restent inconnus. Plusieurs études récentes ont démontré que certains auto-antigènes possèdent des fonctions biologiques additionnelles lorsqu'ils se retrouvent dans le milieu extracellulaire. En effet, une fois libérés par nécrose ou apoptose, ces auto-antigènes adoptent une activité biologique qui s'apparente à celles des cytokines et peuvent ainsi participer aux processus normaux de réparation de blessure et/ou acquérir une activité pathogène qui contribue au développement de certaines maladies auto-immunes. Nos résultats suggèrent que la CENP-B peut être ajoutée à cette liste de molécules bifonctionnelles. À l'aide des techniques d'immunofluorescence, d'ELISA cellulaire et de cytométrie en flux, nous avons démontré que la CENP-B se liait spécifiquement à la surface des CML vasculaire de l’artère pulmonaire avec une plus grande affinité pour le phénotype contractile que synthétique. Cette liaison provoquait la migration des cellules ainsi que la sécrétion de cytokines pro-inflammatoires telles que l’interleukine 6 et 8. Les mécanismes par lesquels la protéine exerçait ces effets impliquaient la phosphorylation de FAK et Src ainsi que la voie des MAP kinases, avec ERK1/2 et p38. Des études de signalisation intracellulaire effectuées à l’aide de plusieurs inhibiteurs spécifiques ainsi que des études de désensibilisation nous ont permis d’identifier le récepteur de la CENP-B en plus d’identifier les mécanismes complets de sa signalisation membranaire. Nous avons démontré que la CENP-B se liait de manière spécifique aux CML vasculaire via le récepteur de chémokine 3 (CCR3) pour ensuite transactiver le récepteur EGF, selon un mécanisme métalloprotéase-dépendant qui implique le relargage du HB-EGF. Cette transactivation est un processus important dans l’activation de la voie des MAP kinases ainsi que dans la sécrétion d’IL-8 induite par la CENP-B. Finalement, nous avons démontré que les auto-anticorps anti-CENP-B pouvaient abolir cette cascade de signalisation, empêchant ainsi la CENP-B d’exercer son rôle de cytokine. L’identification de la CENP-B comme ligand du CCR3 ouvre donc plusieurs perspectives quant à l’étude du rôle pathogène des auto-anticorps anti-CENP-B dans la ScS.

Manipulation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system by HIV-1 : role of the accessory protein Vpr

Le virus de l’immunodéficience humaine de type 1 (VIH-1), l’agent étiologique du SIDA, est un rétrovirus complexe arborant plusieurs protéines accessoires : Nef, Vif, Vpr, et Vpu. Celles-ci sont impliquées dans la modulation de la réplication virale, dans l’évasion immunitaire et dans la progression de la pathogenèse du SIDA. Dans ce contexte, il a été démontré que la protéine virale R (Vpr) induit un arrêt de cycle cellulaire en phase G2. Le mécanisme par lequel Vpr exerce cette fonction est l’activation, ATR (Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related)-dépendante, du point de contrôle de dommage à l’ADN, mais les facteurs et mécanismes moléculaires directement impliqués dans cette activité demeurent inconnus. Afin d’identifier de nouveaux facteurs cellulaires interagissant avec Vpr, nous avons utilisé une purification d’affinité en tandem (TAP) pour isoler des complexes protéiques natifs contenant Vpr. Nous avons découvert que Vpr s’associait avec CRL4A(VprBP), un complexe cellulaire d’E3 ubiquitine ligase, comprenant les protéines Cullin 4A, DDB1 (DNA damage-binding protein 1) et VprBP (Vpr-binding protein). Nos études ont mis en évidence que le recrutement de la E3 ligase par Vpr était nécessaire mais non suffisant pour l’induction de l’arrêt de cycle cellulaire en G2, suggérant ainsi que des événements additionnels seraient impliqués dans ce processus. À cet égard, nous apportons des preuves directes que Vpr détourne les fonctions de CRL4A(VprBP) pour induire la polyubiquitination de type K48 et la dégradation protéosomale de protéines cellulaires encore inconnues. Ces événements d’ubiquitination induits par Vpr ont été démontrés comme étant nécessaire à l’activation d’ATR. Finalement, nous montrons que Vpr forme des foyers ancrés à la chromatine co-localisant avec VprBP ainsi qu’avec des facteurs impliqués dans la réparation de l’ADN. La formation de ces foyers représente un événement essentiel et précoce dans l’induction de l’arrêt de cycle cellulaire en G2. Enfin, nous démontrons que Vpr est capable de recruter CRL4A(VprBP) au niveau de la chromatine et nous apportons des preuves indiquant que le substrat inconnu ciblé par Vpr est une protéine associée à la chromatine. Globalement, nos résultats révèlent certains des ménanismes par lesquels Vpr induit des perturbations du cycle cellulaire. En outre, cette étude contribue à notre compréhension de la modulation du système ubiquitine-protéasome par le VIH-1 et son implication fonctionnelle dans la manipulation de l’environnement cellulaire de l’hôte.

Hydrogen peroxide enhances the expression and function of Giα proteins in aortic vascular smooth muscle cells from Sprague-Dawley rats : role of growth factor receptors transactivation

Nous avons récemment démontré que les espèces réactives oxygénées induisent une augmentation de l’expression des protéines Giα dans les cellules du muscle lisse vasculaire (CMLV) provenant d’aortes de rats spontanément hypertendus (SHR, de l’anglais spontaneously hypertensive rats). La présente étude a pour but d’étudier les effets du peroxyde d’hydrogène (H2O2), un oxydant qui induit le stress oxydatif, sur l’expression de Giα et sur l’activité de l’adénylate cyclase, et d’explorer les voies de signalisation sous-jacentes responsables de cette réponse. Nos résultats montrent que H2O2 induit une augmentation de l’expression des protéines Giα-2 et Giα-3 de manière dose- et temps-dépendante avec une augmentation maximale de 40-50% à 100 µM après 1 heure, sans affecter l’expression de Gsα. L’expression des protéines Giα a été maintenue au niveau normal en presence de AG 1478, AG1295, PD98059 et la wortmannine, des inhibiteurs d’EGF-R (de l’anglais epidermal growth factor receptor), PDGFR-β (de l’anglais platelet-derived growth factor receptor β), de la voie de signalisation ras-ERK1/2 (de l’anglais extracellular regulated kinase1/2), et de la voie de la PI3Kinase-AKT (de l’anglais phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase), respectivement. En outre, le traitement des CMLV avec H2O2 a induit une augmentation du degré de phosphorylation d’EGF-R, PDGF-R, ERK1/2 et AKT; et cette expression a été maintenue au niveau témoin par leurs inhibiteurs respectifs. Les inhibiteurs d’EGF-R et PDGF-R ont aussi induit une diminution du degré de phosphorylation de ERK1/2, et AKT/PKB. En outre, la transfection des cellules avec le siRNA (de l’anglais, small interfering ribonucleic acid) de EGF-R et PDGFR-β a atténué la surexpression des protéines Giα-2 et Giα-3 induite par le traitement au H2O2. La surexpression des protéines Giα induite par H2O2 a été corrélée avec une augmentation de la fonction de la protéine Giα. L’inhibition de l’activité de l’adénylate cyclase par de faibles concentrations de GTPγS après stimulation par la forskoline a augmenté de 20% dans les cellules traitées au H2O2. En outre, le traitement des CMLV au H2O2 a aussi accru l’inhibition de l’activité de l’adénylate cyclase par les hormones inhibitrices telles que l’angiotensine II, oxotrémorine et C-ANP4-23. D’autre part, la stimulation de l’adénylate cyclase induite par GTPγS, glucagon, isoprotérénol, forskoline, et le fluorure de sodium (NaF) a été atténuée de façon significative dans les cellules traitées au H2O2. Ces résultats suggèrent que H2O2 induit la surexpression des protéines Giα-2 and Giα-3 via la transactivation des récepteurs des facteurs de croissance EGF-R, PDGFR-β et l’activation des voies de signalisation ras-ERK1/2 et PI3K-AKT Mot-cles: Protéines Giα, peroxyde d’hydrogène, stress oxydant, récepteurs des facteurs de croissance, MAP kinases, adénylate cyclase, hypertension

Carence en œstrogènes et bases moléculaires du métabolisme des triglycérides et du cholestérol dans le foie et l'intestin : effet de l'exercice physique

La stéatose hépatique et la détérioration du profil lipidique plasmatique sont des pathologies métaboliques favorisées par la carence œstrogénique post-ménopausique. Cependant les mécanismes à la base de ces pathologies n’ont été que très peu étudiés. Le but de cette thèse a été d’investiguer les mécanismes moléculaires possibles à l’origine de l’hypercholestérolémie et de l’accumulation des lipides (triglycérides : TG et cholestérol) dans le foie en utilisant un modèle animal de la ménopause, la rate Sprague Dawley ovariectomisée (Ovx). Nous avons également examiné si le changement des habitudes de vie comme la pratique de l’exercice physique pouvait prévenir ou corriger les modifications induites par l’Ovx. Enfin, rosuvastatine (statine) a été utilisée comme thérapie pharmacologique de l’hypercholestérolémie dans le but de comprendre son effet au niveau moléculaire chez la rate Ovx. L’objectif de la première étude était de déterminer comment l’Ovx peut affecter les niveaux de TG et de cholestérol dans le foie des rates nourries avec une diète riche en lipides (HF : 42% gras). Les rates ont été soumises à la diète HF ou normale pendant 6 semaines avant d’être Ovx ou Sham (ovariectomie simulée), puis maintenues aux mêmes conditions diététiques pour 6 autres semaines. L’Ovx a provoqué une accumulation de TG dans le foie, mais pas la diète HF seule. Cependant, lorsque l’Ovx était combinée à la diète HF, l’accumulation des TG était beaucoup plus importante comparé à ce qui était observé chez les rates Ovx soumises à la diète normale. L’expression génique (ARNm) de CPT1 (Carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1), PGC1α (Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1) et PPARα (Peroxysome proliferetor activated receptor alpha) intervenant dans l’oxydation des acides gras dans le foie était augmentée par la diète HF (p ˂ 0.001; p ˂ 0.01; p ˂ 0.05 respectivement) ; mais atténuée (p ˂ 0.05; p ˂ 0.05; p ˂ 0.07 respectivement) lorsque les rates ont été Ovx, favorisant ainsi l’accumulation des TG dans le foie. La combinaison de la diète HF à l’Ovx a également provoqué une hypercholestérolémie et une accumulation de cholestérol dans le foie malgré la diminution de l’expression de la HMGCoA-r (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase), enzyme clé de la synthèse du cholestérol. Ceci était associé à l’inhibition de l’expression génique de CYP7a1 (Cytochrome P450, family 7, subfamily a, polypeptide 1), suggérant une diminution de la synthèse des acides biliaires. Ayant constaté dans la première étude que l’Ovx élevait les niveaux de cholestérol hépatique et plasmatique, nous nous sommes fixés comme objectif dans la deuxième étude d’évaluer les effets de l’Ovx sur l’expression génique des transporteurs et enzymes responsables du métabolisme du cholestérol et des acides biliaires dans le foie et l’intestin, et de vérifier si l’exercice sur tapis roulant pouvait prévenir ou corriger les changements causés par l’Ovx. L’hypercholestérolémie constatée chez les rates Ovx comparativement aux Sham était accompagnée de la diminution de l’expression génique des récepteurs des LDL (R-LDL), des résidus de lipoprotéines (LRP1), de SREBP-2 (Sterol regulatory element binding protein 2) et de PCSK9 (Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9) dans le foie, suggérant une défaillance dans la clairance des lipoprotéines plasmatiques. L’Ovx a aussi inhibé l’expression génique de la MTP (Microsomal triglyceride transfer protein) et stimulé celle de SR-B1 (Scavenger receptor class B, member 1); mais aucun changement n’a été observé avec CYP7a1. Ces changements moléculaires pourraient par conséquent favoriser l’accumulation de cholestérol dans le foie. L’exercice physique n’a pas corrigé les modifications causées par l’Ovx sur l’expression génique de ces molécules au niveau hépatique à l’exception de SREBP-2. Par contre, au niveau intestinal (iléum), l’exercice sur tapis roulant a inhibé l’expression génique des marqueurs moléculaires intervenant dans l’absorption des acides biliaires (OSTα/β, FXR, RXRα, Fgf15) et du cholestérol (LXRα, NCP1L1) au niveau de l’iléum chez les rates Sham entraînées. Ces adaptations pourraient prévenir le développement de l’hypercholestérolémie protégeant en partie contre la survenue de l’athérosclérose. Au vue des effets délétères (hypercholestérolémie et diminution de l’expression du R-LDL, PCSK9, LRP1, SREBP-2 et HMGCOA-r dans le foie) causés par l’Ovx sur le métabolisme du cholestérol constatés dans l’étude 2, la 3ième étude a été conçue pour évaluer l’efficacité de rosuvastatine (Ros) sur l’expression génique de ces marqueurs moléculaires chez les rates Ovx sédentaires ou soumises à l’entraînement volontaire. Ros a été administrée aux rates Ovx pendant 21 jours par voie sous-cutanée à la dose de 5mg/kg/j à partir de la 9ième semaine après l’Ovx. Ros n’a pas diminué la concentration plasmatique de LDL-C et de TC chez les rates Ovx. Par contre, Ros a stimulé (P ˂ 0.05) l’expression génique de PCSK9, SREBP-2, LRP1, HMGCoA-r et ACAT2 (Acyl-CoA cholesterol acyltransferase) mais pas significativement (P = 0.3) celle du R-LDL dans le foie des rates Ovx sédentaires et entraînées. Ros n’a pas réduit la concentration plasmatique de LDL-C probablement à cause de l’induction plus importante de PCSK9 par rapport au R-LDL. Cependant, la stimulation de LRP1 par Ros protège partiellement contre la survenue des maladies cardiovasculaires. En conclusion, les études de cette thèse indiquent que la baisse du niveau des œstrogènes entraîne des changements radicaux du métabolisme hépatique des TG et du cholestérol provoqués par des altérations de l’expression des gènes clés des voies métaboliques associées.

Étude structuro-fonctionnelle de SecP43 et caractérisation de ses interactions avec SepSecS et l’ARNtSec in vitro

Selenoproteins are proteins containing selenium in the form of the 21st amino acid, selenocysteine. Selenocysteine (Sec) is directly synthesized onto its cognate tRNA (tRNA[Ser]Sec or tRNASec) and inserted into selenoproteins co-translationally with the help of various cis- and trans-acting factors. Among those factors, SecP43 has been reported to possibly play an essential role in the methylation at the 2’-hydroxylribosyl moiety in the wobble position (Um34) of Sec-tRNA[Ser]Sec and consequently reduce the expression of glutathione peroxidase 1. SecP43 also called tRNASec-associated protein has also been reported to interact in with SepSecS and tRNASec in vivo and the targeted removal of one of these proteins affected the binding of the other to the Sec-tRNASec. The initial aim of the project was to solve the structure of SecP43 by means of x-ray crystallography. Secondly, we were interested in characterizing the interaction of the latter with some of the components of the selenocysteine insertion machinery. These factors are SepSecS and tRNASec. We were able to optimize the expression and the purification of soluble form of the human homologue of SecP43 and of SepSecS by using an adapted auto-induction protocol. This was a major challenge considering that full length SecP43 has not been expressed and purify to date. We did not succeed in crystallizing SecP43. Our failure to crystallize SecP43 is probably due to the fact that it is a partially folded protein as we were able to demonstrate by SAXS (Small Angle X-ray Scattering). The SecP43 envelope calculated by SAXS displayed a rod-shape like structure. In order to enhance the stability of SecP43 required for crystallization, binding affinity studies were conducted to characterize the interaction between SecP43, tRNASec and SepSecS. We did not detect an interaction between SecP43 and tRNASec by using EMSA (Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay) and gel filtration. We also could not detect an interaction between SecP43 and SepSecS using a cross-linking assay. In contrast, the tRNASec/SepSecS interaction was demonstrated by EMSA and the addition of SecP43 seemed to reduce the binding affinity. Therefore, SecP43 might induce a conformational change in SepSecS in the presence of tRNASec.