Análise molecular de pacientes com síndromes de Smith-Magenis

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

O ambiente educativo e o desenvolvimento do indivíduo portador do transtorno do déficit de atenção e hiperatividade (TDAH)

The pedagogical context can become a mediator between teaching and learning process. In a research conducted to obtain a Master’s degree, I could see how intentional organized environment refl ects in the knowledge appropriation and internalization historically produced. The objective of this study is to raise hypothesis about the favoring of the potentiating context of learning in the development of the individual with the Attention Defi cit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) as well as on the organization of pedagogic environment to mediate the actions of teaching and reading learning. It is the concern to meet children with behavior considered inappropriate for the classroom environment and failure before situations that involve them. The hypothesis is that when the teaching and learning environment provides motivation to the student and awakens in him the desire to produce knowledge and take ownership of it, it is possible that it may have a potentiating development of learning. As theoretical support, I used texts from Luria (1987, 1994), Vygotsky (1994), Vigotskii, Luria and Leontiev (1998), Beaton (2005),Graeff and Vaz (2008), Pastura, Mattos and Araujo (2005). The bibliographic research was the methodology used for the study.

Are mental health problems and depression associated with bruxism in children?

Renner AC, da Silva AAM, Rodriguez JDM, Simoes VMF, Barbieri MA, Bettiol H, Thomaz EBAF, Saraiva MC. Are mental health problems and depression associated with bruxism in children? Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2011. (C) 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S Abstract Objectives: Previous studies have found an association between bruxism and emotional and behavioral problems in children, but reported data are inconsistent. The objective of this study was to estimate the prevalence of bruxism, and of its components clenching and grinding, and its associations with mental problems and depression. Methods: Data from two Brazilian birth cohorts were analyzed: one from 869 children in Ribeirao Preto RP (Sao Paulo), a more developed city, and the other from 805 children in Sao Luis SL (Maranhao). Current bruxism evaluated by means of a questionnaire applied to the parents/persons responsible for the children was defined when the habit of tooth clenching during daytime and/or tooth grinding at night still persisted until the time of the assessment. Additionally, the lifetime prevalence of clenching during daytime only and grinding at night only was also evaluated. Mental health problems were investigated using the Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and depression using the Childrens Depression Inventory (CDI). Analyses were carried out for each city: with the SDQ subscales (emotional symptoms, conduct problems, peer problems, attention/hyperactivity disorder), with the total score (sum of the subscales), and with the CDI. These analyses were performed considering different response variables: bruxism, clenching only, and grinding only. The risks were estimated using a Poisson regression model. Statistical inferences were based on 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Results: There was a high prevalence of current bruxism: 28.7% in RP and 30.0% in SL. The prevalence of clenching was 20.3% in RP and 18.8% in SL, and grinding was found in 35.7% of the children in RP and 39.1% in SL. Multivariable analysis showed a significant association of bruxism with emotional symptoms and total SDQ score in both cities. When analyzed separately, teeth clenching was associated with emotional symptoms, peer problems, and total SDQ score; grinding was significantly associated with emotional symptoms and total SDQ score in RP and SL. Female sex appeared as a protective factor for bruxism, and for clenching and grinding in RP. Furthermore, maternal employment outside the home and white skin color of children were associated with increased prevalence of teeth clenching in SL. Conclusions: Mental health problems were associated with bruxism, with teeth clenching only and grinding at night only. No association was detected between depression and bruxism, neither clenching nor grinding. But it is necessary to be cautious regarding the inferences from some of our results.

The spatial representation of time

Numerosi studi mostrano che gli intervalli temporali sono rappresentati attraverso un codice spaziale che si estende da sinistra verso destra, dove gli intervalli brevi sono rappresentati a sinistra rispetto a quelli lunghi. Inoltre tale disposizione spaziale del tempo può essere influenzata dalla manipolazione dell’attenzione-spaziale. La presente tesi si inserisce nel dibattito attuale sulla relazione tra rappresentazione spaziale del tempo e attenzione-spaziale attraverso l’uso di una tecnica che modula l’attenzione-spaziale, ovvero, l’Adattamento Prismatico (AP). La prima parte è dedicata ai meccanismi sottostanti tale relazione. Abbiamo mostrato che spostando l’attenzione-spaziale con AP, verso un lato dello spazio, si ottiene una distorsione della rappresentazione di intervalli temporali, in accordo con il lato dello spostamento attenzionale. Questo avviene sia con stimoli visivi, sia con stimoli uditivi, nonostante la modalità uditiva non sia direttamente coinvolta nella procedura visuo-motoria di AP. Questo risultato ci ha suggerito che il codice spaziale utilizzato per rappresentare il tempo, è un meccanismo centrale che viene influenzato ad alti livelli della cognizione spaziale. La tesi prosegue con l’indagine delle aree corticali che mediano l’interazione spazio-tempo, attraverso metodi neuropsicologici, neurofisiologici e di neuroimmagine. In particolare abbiamo evidenziato che, le aree localizzate nell’emisfero destro, sono cruciali per l’elaborazione del tempo, mentre le aree localizzate nell’emisfero sinistro sono cruciali ai fini della procedura di AP e affinché AP abbia effetto sugli intervalli temporali. Infine, la tesi, è dedicata allo studio dei disturbi della rappresentazione spaziale del tempo. I risultati ci indicano che un deficit di attenzione-spaziale, dopo danno emisferico destro, provoca un deficit di rappresentazione spaziale del tempo, che si riflette negativamente sulla vita quotidiana dei pazienti. Particolarmente interessanti sono i risultati ottenuti mediante AP. Un trattamento con AP, efficace nel ridurre il deficit di attenzione-spaziale, riduce anche il deficit di rappresentazione spaziale del tempo, migliorando la qualità di vita dei pazienti.

Cerebellar disorders in childhood: cognitive problems

Over the last decade, increasing evidence of cognitive functions of the cerebellum during development and learning processes could be ascertained. Posterior fossa malformations such as cerebellar hypoplasia or Joubert syndrome are known to be related to developmental problems in a marked to moderate extent. More detailed analyses reveal special deficits in attention, processing speed, visuospatial functions, and language. A study about Dandy Walker syndrome states a relationship of abnormalities in vermis lobulation with developmental problems. Further lobulation or volume abnormalities of the cerebellum and/or vermis can be detected in disorders as fragile X syndrome, Downs's syndrome, William's syndrome, and autism. Neuropsychological studies reveal a relation of dyslexia and attention deficit disorder with cerebellar functions. These functional studies are supported by structural abnormalities in neuroimaging in these disorders. Acquired cerebellar or vermis atrophy was found in groups of children with developmental problems such as prenatal alcohol exposure or extreme prematurity. Also, focal lesions during childhood or adolescence such as cerebellar tumor or stroke are related with neuropsychological abnormalities, which are most pronounced in visuospatial, language, and memory functions. In addition, cerebellar atrophy was shown to be a bad prognostic factor considering cognitive outcome in children after brain trauma and leukemia. In ataxia teleangiectasia, a neurodegenerative disorder affecting primarily the cerebellar cortex, a reduced verbal intelligence quotient and problems of judgment of duration are a hint of the importance of the cerebellum in cognition. In conclusion, the cerebellum seems to play an important role in many higher cognitive functions, especially in learning. There is a suggestion that the earlier the incorrect influence, the more pronounced the problems.

The cost of insuring the uninsured in the U.S.

Objectives: This study included two overarching objectives. Through a systematic review of the literature published between 1990 and 2012, the first objective aimed to assess whether insuring the uninsured would result in higher costs compared to insuring the currently insured. Studies that quantified the actual costs associated with insuring the uninsured in the U.S. were included. Based upon 2009 data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS), the second objective aimed to assess and compare the self-reported health of populations with four different insurance statuses. The second part of this study involved a secondary data analysis of both currently insured and currently uninsured individuals who participated in the MEPS in 2009. The null hypothesis was that there were no differences across the four categories of health insurance status for self-reported health status and healthcare service use. The alternative hypothesis was that were differences across the four categories of health insurance status for self-reported health status and healthcare service use. Methods: For the systematic review, three databases were searched using search terms to identify studies that actually quantified the cost of insuring the uninsured. Thirteen studies were selected, discussed, and summarized in tables. For the secondary data analysis of MEPS data, this study compared four categories of health insurance status: (1) currently uninsured persons who will become eligible for Medicaid under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) healthcare reforms in 2014; (2) currently uninsured persons who will be required to buy private insurance through the PPACA health insurance exchanges in 2014; (3) persons currently insured under Medicaid or SCHIP; and (4) persons currently insured with private insurance. The four categories were compared on the basis of demographic information, health status information, and health conditions with relatively high prevalence. Chi-square tests were run to determine if there were differences between the four groups in regard to health insurance status and health status. With some exceptions, the two currently insured groups had worse self-reported health status compared to the two currently uninsured groups. Results: The thirteen studies that met the inclusion criteria for the systematic review included: (1) three cost studies from 1993, 1995, and 1997; (2) four cost studies from 2001, 2003, and 2004; (3) one study of disabilities and one study of immigrants; (4) two state specific studies of uninsured status; and (5) two current studies of healthcare reform. Of the thirteen studies reviewed, four directly addressed the study question about whether insuring the uninsured was more or less expensive than insuring the currently insured. All four of the studies provided support for the study finding that the cost of insuring the uninsured would generally not be higher than insuring those already insured. One study indicated that the cost of insuring the uninsured would be less expensive than insuring the population currently covered by Medicaid, but more expensive to insure than the populations of those covered by employer-sponsored insurance and non-group private insurance. While the nine other studies included in the systematic review discussed the costs associated with insuring the uninsured population, they did not directly compare the costs of insuring the uninsured population with the costs associated with insuring the currently insured population. For the MEPS secondary data analysis, the results of the chi-square tests indicated that there were differences in the distribution of disease status by health insurance status. As anticipated, with some exceptions, the uninsured reported lower rates of disease and healthcare service use. However, for the variable attention deficit disorder, the uninsured reported higher disease rates than the two insured groups. Additionally, for the variables high blood pressure, high cholesterol, and joint pain, the currently insured under Medicaid or SCHIP group reported a lower rate of disease than the two currently insured groups. This result may be due to the lower mean age of the currently insured under Medicaid or SCHIP group. Conclusion: Based on this study, with some exceptions, the costs for insuring the uninsured should not exceed healthcare-related costs for insuring the currently uninsured. The results of the systematic review indicated that the U.S. is already paying some of the costs associated with insuring the uninsured. PPACA will expand health insurance coverage to millions of Americans who are currently uninsured, as the individual mandate and insurance market reforms will require. Because many of the currently uninsured are relatively healthy young persons, the costs associated with expanding insurance coverage to the uninsured are anticipated to be relatively modest. However, for the purposes of construing these results, it is important to note that once individuals obtain insurance, it is anticipated that they will use more healthcare services, which will increase costs. (Abstract shortened by UMI.)^

Bases para un diseño metodológico de estimulación binaural como terapia acústica en neurología

La medicina y la ingeniería del siglo XXI han dado como fruto numerosos avances para la sociedad aunque en la mayoría de los casos los tratamientos suelen ser costosos e invasivos. La educación que recibe la sociedad sobre la salud es escasa, ya que sólo vamos al médico cuando realmente estamos enfermos. Este trabajo presenta nuestra apuesta por las terapias complementarias, para el desarrollo de una metodología terapéutica no invasiva y con un costo muy bajo. La finalidad de esta Tesis, que se enmarca en un equipo multidisciplinar, fruto de la estrecha colaboración en el que participan psicopedagogos, ingenieros y médicos, es perfilar una metodología que luego pueda ser aplicable a patologías neurológicas. Aquí, dejamos sentadas las bases. Faltarán nuevos investigadores que continúen este camino para tener una base de datos lo suficientemente extensa de registros de sujetos que hayan sido sometidos a terapia binaural, para poder sacar unas conclusiones sólidas. La aportación de esta Tesis deja cubierta la aplicación, selección, procesado de señal y desarrollo de algoritmos, test cognitivos indicados para el caso específico que nos ocupa, cálculo de incertidumbre del sistema utilizado para la aplicación del estímulo y desarrollo de un test psicoacústico específico. EL empleo del sonido en medicina como es la musicoterapia o sonoterapia ha experimentado una gran difusión en los últimos años, más de 100.000 nuevas citas bibliográficas han aparecido con respecto al año anterior. Sin embargo, son escasísimas las que hacen referencia a las características físico acústicas del sonido empleado, tan sólo hemos encontrado una par de ellas que correlacionan las características físicas del sonido con el tipo de respuesta terapéutica. No encontramos citas bibliográficas específicas que planteen un modelo experimental científico capaz de reproducir las mismas respuestas ante los mismos parámetros y estímulos. En esta Tesis proponemos el uso de estimulación sonora binaural, que consiste en la utilización de dos tonos puros idénticos pero ligeramente diferentes en frecuencia que se presentan de manera separada cada uno en un oído, como consecuencia, la persona que recibe la estimulación percibe un tercer tono, llamado tono binaural, formado por la diferencia de frecuencia de ambos variando su amplitud. Existen estudios que sugieren que dichas frecuencias binaurales pueden modificar los patrones eléctricos de la actividad cerebral y los niveles de arousal, conociéndose en la literatura bajo el nombre de “entrainment”. Tras la revisión bibliográfica del estado del arte, podemos concluir que es necesario el desarrollo de estudios doble ciego bien diseñados, con el objetivo de establecer una base sólida sobre los efectos de este tipo de estimulación, ya que la mayoría de los beneficios documentados se refieren a muestras muy pequeñas y con poco rigor científico, siendo los resultados positivos obtenidos debidos al efecto placebo. La tecnología binaural es barata siendo cualquier avance en esta dirección de interés público. El objetivo concreto de la investigación es estudiar el potencial de las ondas binaurales en un área en particular: tareas que requieren atención y concentración. Se busca obtener cualquier cambio en las ondas cerebrales que se puedan correlar con la mejoras. A la vista de los resultados de estas investigaciones se intentará aplicar esta metodología en neuropatologías que presenten alguna deficiencia en el área de atención como es el Trastorno de espectro Autista. En esta Tesis presentamos los resultados de dos estudios independientes, el primero para sentar las bases del método (tiempos, diseño de estimulaciones, procesado) en una muestra de 78 adultos sanos, el segundo a partir de los resultados obtenidos en el primero, afinando la metodología y para un grupo de 20 niños entre 8 y 12 años, los resultados del segundo estudio sirven para justificar su aplicación en niños con TEA que presenten déficit de atención. ABSTRACT Medicine and engineering in the 21st century have resulted in advances for society but in most cases the treatments are often costly and invasive. The health education society receive is scarce, since only go to the doctor when we are really sick. With this work I present my commitment to complementary therapies, my little grain of sand in the development of a noninvasive therapeutic approach and very low cost, well and can be used in a preventive manner resulting in a society with less sick. The purpose of this thesis is to outline a methodology that can then be applied to neurological diseases, here we lay the groundwork. New researchers are needed to continue this path for a sufficiently extensive records database of subjects who have undergone binaural therapy, and so to draw firm conclusions. The contribution of this thesis includes: the application, selection, signal processing and algorithm development, indicated cognitive tests for the specific case at hand, calculation of system uncertainty of the system and development of a specific psychoacoustic test. The use of sound in medicine, such as music therapy or sound therapy has experienced a great diffusion in recent years, more than 100,000 new citations have appeared over the previous year but very few are those referring to acoustic physical characteristics of sound employee, we have only found a couple of them that physical sound characteristics are correlated with the therapeutic response. We found no specific citations posing a scientific experimental model capable of reproducing the same answers to the same parameters and stimuli. In this thesis we propose the use of binaural sound stimulation which involves the use of two identical but slightly different in frequency pure tones presented separately each in one ear, as a result the subject perceives a third tone, called binaural tone, formed by the difference in frequency with amplitude variations Studies suggest that these binaural frequencies can modify the electrical patterns of brain activity and arousal levels, being known in the literature under the name of “entrainment”. After the literature review of the state of the art, we conclude, it is necessary to develop well-designed double-blind studies, in order to establish a solid foundation on the effects of such stimulation, since most of the documented benefits relate to very small samples and unscientific may be obtained positive results due to the placebo effect. The binaural technology is cheap being any progress in this direction in the public interest. The specific objective of the research is to study the potential of binaural waves in a particular area: tasks requiring attention and concentration also we want to get any change in brain waves that can correlate with improvements. In view of the results of this research we seek to apply this methodology in neuropathology presenting any deficiency in the area of attention such as Autism Spectrum Disorder. In this thesis we present the results of two independent studies, the first to lay the foundation of the method (times, stimulation design, processing) in a sample of 78 healthy adults, the second from the results obtained in the first, refine the methodology for a group of 20 children between 8 and 12 years, the results of the second study used to justify its use in children with ASD that present attention deficit.

Fatores de sucesso/insucesso escolar numa criança com PHDA no 1.º ciclo do ensino básico : um estudo de caso

Trabalho de Projeto apresentado ao Instituto Politécnico de Castelo Branco para cumprimento dos requisitos necessários à obtenção do Grau de de Mestre em Educação Especial – Domínio Cognitivo e Motor.

The effects of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome and other chronic tic disorders on quality of life across the lifespan:a systematic review

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (GTS) and other chronic tic disorders are neurodevelopmental conditions characterized by the presence of tics and associated behavioral problems. Whilst converging evidence indicates that these conditions can affect patients' quality of life (QoL), the extent of this impairment across the lifespan is not well understood. We conducted a systematic literature review of published QoL studies in GTS and other chronic tic disorders to comprehensively assess the effects of these conditions on QoL in different age groups. We found that QoL can be perceived differently by child and adult patients, especially with regard to the reciprocal contributions of tics and behavioral problems to the different domains of QoL. Specifically, QoL profiles in children often reflect the impact of co-morbid attention-deficit and hyperactivity symptoms, which tend to improve with age, whereas adults' perception of QoL seems to be more strongly affected by the presence of depression and anxiety. Management strategies should take into account differences in age-related QoL needs between children and adults with GTS or other chronic tic disorders.

Negligent Eye

This presentation was both an illustrated lecture and a published paper presented at the IMPACT 9 Conference Printmaking in the Post-Print Age, Hangzhou China 2015. It was an extension of the exhibition catalogue essay for the Bluecoat Gallery Exhibition of the same name. In 2014 I curated an exhibition The Negligent Eye at the Bluecoat Gallery in Liverpool as the result of longstanding interest in scanning and 3D printing and the role of these in changing the field of Print within Fine Art Practice. In the aftermath of curatingshow I have continued to reflect on this material with reference to the writings of Vilém Flusser and Hito Steyerl. The work in the exhibition came from a wide range of artists of all generations most of whom are not explicitly located within Printmaking. Whilst some work did not use any scanning technology at all, a shared fascination with the particular translating device of the systematizing ‘eye’ of a scanning digital video camera, flatbed or medical scanner was expressed by all the work in the show. Through writing this paper I aim to extend my own understanding of questions, which arose from the juxtapositions of work and the production of the accompanying catalogue. The show developed in dialogue with curators Bryan Biggs and Sarah-Jane Parsons of the Bluecoat Gallery who sent a series of questions about scanning to participating artists. In reflecting upon their answers I will extend the discussions begun in the process of this research. A kind of created attention deficit disorder seems to operate on us all today to make and distribute images and information at speed. What value do ways of making which require slow looking or intensive material explorations have in this accelerated system? What model of the world is being constructed by the drive to simulated realities toward ever-greater resolution, so called high definition? How are our perceptions of reality being altered by the world-view presented in the smooth colourful ever morphing simulations that surround us? The limitations of digital technology are often a starting point for artists to reflect on our relationship to real-world fragility. I will be looking at practices where tactility or dimensionality in a form of hard copy engages with these questions using examples from the exhibition. Artists included in the show were: Cory Arcangel, Christiane Baumgartner, Thomas Bewick, Jyll Bradley, Maurice Carlin, Helen Chadwick, Susan Collins, Conroy/Sanderson, Nicky Coutts, Elizabeth Gossling, Beatrice Haines, Juneau Projects, Laura Maloney, Bob Matthews, London Fieldworks (with the participation of Gustav Metzger), Marilène Oliver, Flora Parrott, South Atlantic Souvenirs, Imogen Stidworthy, Jo Stockham, Wolfgang Tillmans, Alessa Tinne, Michael Wegerer, Rachel Whiteread, Jane and Louise Wilson. Scanning, Art, Technology, Copy, Materiality.

RELATIONSHIPS IN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOMS

Climate in the classroom is one of the determining factors in the development of practices in Inclusive Education. Many factors contribute to the climate in the classroom. However, there are predominance on affective-relational factors, with impact on action, norms and values, social interactions and learning processes. In this paper, the authors reflect on four studies which aim to identify and evaluate the relationship between several agents in the teaching–learning process (regular teachers, special education teachers and peer students) and the students with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Disability and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The studies were held in Primary Portuguese schools. The results are presented and discussed in their similarities and differences. The discussion shows that relationships between teachers and children with Special Education Needs (SEN) differ from those between teachers and typical children, but also according to different SEN. In general, there are not significant differences between regular teachers and special education teachers

Projecte interactiu "Vila-moguda"

La idea inicial va ser la de crear un interactiu multimèdia amb finalitat didàctica que gira entorn els trastorns per dèficit d'atenció.Està adreçat a nens en edat escolar. Com a part principal hi ha una sèrie d'activitatsindicades per a potenciar la concentració i motivar a acabar allò que comença, així comdiversa informació sobre el transtorn i consells sobre activitats a realitzar per treballar les carències d'aquests nens/es.

Dificultats d'aprenentatge en el llenguatge oral i escrit i en matemàtiques en un cas d'un nen amb trastorn per dèficit d'atenció sense hiperactivitat

Aquest projecte final de Pràcticum I de Psicologia de l'Educació explica totes les activitats que he dut a terme al llarg de la meva estada en practiques al centre Orienta. S'hi descriuen les característiques més rellevants del centre, així com els serveis que ofereix a la comunitat educativa, molt especialment els adreçats a ajudar els infants a millorar les seves capacitats d'aprenentatge, des d'un marc teòric cognitiu-conductual i sistèmic, tot emfatitzant el treball col·laboratiu que mantenen els professionals de l'educació amb les famílies dels nens. El projecte detalla les activitats de col·laboració en la intervenció que he realitzat des de l'àmbit educatiu de la Psicologia, la seva temporització i seguiment i finalment, les conclusions i prospectiva envers el treball realitzat, així com la valoració crítica que en faig de la meva estada en pràctiques.

L'entorn de les WebQuest com a recurs motivador per a la millora del rendiment d'alumnes amb dificultats d'atenció i amb N.E.E.

A partir de la creació i aplicació didàctica d'una WebQuest en un curs de 4t de Primària s'analitza com i de uina manera pot influir positivament en el rendiment personal i acadèmic del grup d'alumnes, grup que presenta unes característiques acusades de dificultats d'atenció generalitzada, forts desnivells de coneixements, i en el qual es troben alumnes amb necessitats educatives especials (n.e.e.). Les webquest poden ser un bon recurs didàctic per a motivar el treball cooperatiu i la interacció entre alumnes, professors i les tecnologies de la informació i la comunicació.

Is the presence of an intrathecal synthesis of immunoglobulins associated with neurocognitive impairment in HIV-infected patients?

Worldwide, the incidence of HIV-associated dementia has decreased However, the prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND), mostly the milder forms, i.e. mild neurocognitve disorders (MND) and asymptomatic neurocognitive impairments (ANI) has increased in the combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) era. Indeed, 20% to 60% of well- treated HIV-infected patients, i.e. with undetectable HIV viremia, still present HAND in the cART era. HAND are characterized by psychomotor slowing, memory loss, and attention deficit. Possible explanations for this paradoxical phenomenon encompass: increased survival of HIV- infected patients thank to cART, low grade inflammation of the brain insufficient penetrance of antiretroviral drugs through the blood brain barrier (BBB), or on the contrary, toxic effect of some antiretroviral drugs. These somewhat contradictory hypotheses underline our poor understanding of HAND physiopathology. Here, we aim at determining whether the intrathecal synthesis of immunoglobulins G (IgG), hereafter referred as cerebrospinal fluid oligoclonal band (CSF OB), may help us in better understanding the immunopathogenesis of cognitive disorders. By analogy with other infection, such as syphilis or neuroborreliosis (9, 10), one can assume that, in the case of HIV-infected patients, the CSF OB are directed against HIV proteins (11). Nevertheless, in the case of HIV, the meaning of such CSF OB is unclear. Indeed, it is unknown whether this intrathecal inflammatory reaction is beneficial (viral control) or harmful (brain parenchyma destruction by the different inflammatory factors). Here, we looked at the association between CSF OB and cognitive disorders in HIV-infected patients, hypothesizing that if these CSF OB are protective, one should see an inverse correlation with the presence of cognitive disorders.